






'' .. v^^^\** %*^^/ V*^v "H 












\ *^''.-^k-""- y*^:^^'X ^'*.'i^^'>- 










' >.c,^'' : 









'bV 










...;■/ ,/\ l^*- /\ ^'TO** J\ W/ 





% "■' f° <^ *••*>" ^r^ «^<t. 




















• I *« 




■ 






<^ 



♦ 



A^ • ^^^m^jp^ ' 



IT ^^ 



o 



f: 



•J 






« 
o^ 






,v 



:^ 



U7 



/¥ 



n 



GOVERNMENTS ^ 7-^ 



OF 



FHE WORLD TO-DAY 



An Outline /or the Use of Newspaper Readers 



BY 



HAMBLEN SEARS 



<,-^ 







^! 



•1^/ * 



•// 






MEADVILLE, PENN'A 

FLOOD AND VINCENT 
€ht ^t)autauqua-($entur9 ^ti0 

1895 



c^ 



/7 



i 



TF31 



Copyright, 1895 
By Hamblen Sears 



The Chautauqua-Century Press, Meadville, Pa,, U. S. A. 
Electrotyped, Printed, and Bound by Flood & Vincent. 



THIS BOOK 

IS DEDICATED 

TO 

MY WIFE. 



mmmmmarnKme 



9^ 



*o. 



9 




CONTENTS. 



Preface ix 

Argentine Republic , 13 

Tables, 12. History since 1800, 12. Constitution, 18. Legislature, Execu- 
tive, 19. Judiciary, Administration, Army and Navy, 20. History 
since 1874, 21. Financial Crisis, 22. Revolution, 24. 

Australia 26 

Constitutions, 26. Federation, 29. 

Austria-Hungary 33 

Tables, 32. History since 1815, 33. Constitutions, 38. Whole Empire : 
The Delegations, Executive, Judiciary, 40. Army and Navy, 41. 
Austria: Herrenhaus, 42. Abgeordnetenhaus, Executive, 43. Austrian 
Diets, 43. Hungary, 44. House of Magnates, House of Representatives, 
Executive, 45. Croatia, 45. History since 1867, 46. Bohemia, 49. 

Belgium 53 

Tables, 52. History since 1815, 53. Constitution, Legislature, 56. Execu- 
tive, Judiciary, Local Government, 57. Kulturkampf, Labor Questions, 

58. 

Bolivia 61 

Tables, 60. Constitution, Legislature, Executive, Judiciary, Historical 
Sketch, 61. 

Brazil 65 

Tables, 64. History since 1800, 65. Constitution, 66. Legislature, 67. 
Executive, .Tudiciary, Administration, 68. Army and Navy, History 
since 1870, 69. 

British Empire 73 

Tables, 72. History since 1800, 74. Constitution, Crown, 79. Legisla- 
ture, 80. Executive, 82. Army and Navy, 84. Modern History, Minis- 
tries, 85. Ireland, 87. Colonies, 95. 

Canada 99 

Tables. 98. History since 1800, 99. Constitution, 102. Legislature, 
Executive, 103. Judiciary, Army and Navy, 104. Provincial Govern- 
ment, 104. 

Chile 107 

Tables, 106. History since 1800, 107. Constitution, Legislature, 109. 
Executive, Judiciary, Local Government, 110. Army and Navy, His- 
tory since 1875, War of 1880-81, 111. Revolution, 113. 

China 117 

Table, 116. History since 1800, 117. Government, Legislature, 120. 
Emperor, 121. Army and Navy, History since 1875, Tonquin Episode, 
122. Corean War, 124. 

Colombia 127 

Tables, 126. Historical Sketch, 127. Constitution, Legislature, Execu- 
tive, Administration, Army and Navy, 129. Contemporary Events, 130. 

CosTA Rica 132 

Historical Sketch, 132. Constitution, Legislature, 133. Executive, 
Judiciary, Army and Navy, Contemporary Events, 134. 

V 






vi contents. 

Denmark 137 

Tables, 136. History since 1800, 137. Constitution, Legislature, 140. 
Executive, Judiciary, 141. Local Government, Army and Navy, 
Colonies, 142. History since 1866, 143. 

Ecuador 145 

Historical Sketch, 145. Constitution, Legislature, Executive, Judi- 
ciary, 146. Army and Navy, 147. 

Egypt 149 

Tables, 148. History since 1800, 149. Government, 151. Legislature, 152. 
Khedive, Judiciary, 153. Local Government, Army and Navy, Con- 
temporary History, 154. 

France 157 

Tables, 156. History since 1800, 157. Constitution, Legislature, 165. 
Executive, 167. Administration, Judiciary, 168. Army and Navy, 169. 
Local Government, History since 1871, 170. Boulanger, 173. Colonies, 
175. 

German Empire 179 

Tables, 178. History since 1815, 179. Constitutions, 183. Bundesi-ath, 
Reichstag, 184. Emperor, Judiciary, Administration, 185. Army and 
Navy, 186. State Constitutions, 187. History since 1871, 189. Kultur- 
kampf, 190. Social Democracy, 193. Insurance Legislation, 195. Colonies, 
196. 

Greece 199 

Tables, 198. History since 1800, 199. Constitution, Legislature, 204. 
Executive, Judiciary, Local Government, Army and Navy, 205. Con- 
temporary Politics, 206 

Guatemala 208 

Historical Sketch, 208. Constitution, Legislature, Executive, 209. Ju- 
diciary, Army, Contemporary Events, 210. 

Haiti 213 

Tables, 212. Historical Sketch, 213. Constitution, Legislature, 214. 
Executive, Army and Navy, Contemporary Events, 215. 

Honduras 216 

Historical Sketch, Constitution, Legislature, 217. Executive, Judici- 
ary, Contemporary Events, 218. 

Italy 221 

Tables, 220. History since 1800, 221. Constitution, Legislature, 227. 
Executive, Judiciary, 228. Army and Navy, 229. Roman Pontificate, 
230. San Marino, Colonies, 231. Recent Events, 232. 

Japan 235 

Tables, 234. History since 1800, 235. Constitution, Legislature, 242. 
Executive, Judiciary, 243. Army and Navy, Recent Events, 244. 

Liberia 246 

Historical Sketch, Constitution, 246. 

Mexico 249 

Tables, 248. History since 1800, 249. Constitution, Legislature, 254. 
Executive, 255. Judiciary, Local Government, 256. Army and Navy, 
257. 

Montenegro 258 

Constitution, Legislature, Executive, Judiciary, Army, 259. 

Morocco 260 

Historical Sketch, 260. Government, Army, 261. 

Netherlands 263 

Table, 262. History since 1800, 263. Constitution, Legislature, 266. 
Executive, Judiciary, Army and Navy, 267. Recent Events, 268. Col- 
onies, 269. 



CONTENTS. Vii 

Nicaragua . 270 

Area and Population, Historical Sketch, 270. Constitution, Legislature, 
Executive, Judiciary, Army and Navy, 271. Recent Events, 272. 

Orange River Free State 273 

Historical Sketch, 273. Constitution, Legislature, 274. Executive, 
Judiciary, Army, 275. 

Paraguay 276 

Historical Sketch, 276. Constitution, 277. Legislature, Executive, 
Judiciary, Army and Navy, 278. 

Persia .279 

Historical Sketch, 279. Constitution, 281. Army and Navy, 282. 

Peru 285 

Tables, 284. History since 1800, 285. Constitution, Legislature, 288. 
Executive, Judiciary, Army and Navy, 289. 

Portugal 291 

Tables, 290. History since 1800, 291. Constitution, Legislature, 294. 
Executive, Judiciary, 295. Army and Navy, 296. 

ROUMANIA 297 

Historical Sketch, 297. Constitution, Legislature, 300. Executive, 
Judiciary, Army, Local Government, 301. 

Russia 803 

Tables, 302. History since 1800, 303. government. The Tsar, 309. 
Council of the Empire, The Senate, 310. Holy Synod, Administration, 
Local Government, 311. Judiciary, Army and Navy, 312. Finland, 313. 
Recent Events, 314. 

Salvador 316 

Historical Sketch, 316. Constitution, Legislature, Executive, Judiciary, 
318. Administration, 319. 

Santo Domingo 320 

Historical Sketch, 320. Constitution, Legislature, Executive, Judici- 
ary, Army and Navy, 321. 

Servta 323 

Tables, 322. History since 1800, 323. Constitution, Legislature, 324. 
Executive, Judiciary, Army, 325. Contemporary Events, 326. 

SlAM 329 

Historical Sketch, Constitution, 329. Local Government, 330. 

South African Republic 331 

Historical Sketch, 332. Constitution, Legislature, 333. 

Spain 335 

Tables, 334. History since 1800, 335. Constitution, 339. Legislature, 340. 
Executive, Judiciary, Army and Navy, 341. Local Government, 
Colonies, 342. Contemporary Events, 343. 

Sweden and Norway 347 

Tables, 346. History since 1800, 347. Constitutions, 350. Sweden : Legis- 
lature, Executive, 351. Judiciary, Army and Navy, Local Government, 
352. Norway : Legislature, 352. Executive, Judiciary, 353. Army and 
Navy, Local Government, Question of Dissolution of Union, 354. 

Switzerland 357 

Tables, 356. History since 1800, 357. Constitution, Legislature, 362. 
Executive, Judiciary, 364. Army, 365. Local Government, Referen- 
dum, 366. Contemporary Events, Kulturkampf, 367. 

Turkey 371 

Tables, 370. History since 1800, 371. Government, Sultan, 376. Admin- 
istration, Judiciary, Army and Navy, 377. Local Government, Bulgaria, 
378. Crete, Samos, 379. 



Viii CONTENTS. 

United States 382 

Tables, 380-1. History since 1815, 382. Administrations and Parties, 383. 
TariflF, 392. Slavery, 395. Constitution, Congress, 397. House of Repre- 
sentatives, Senate, Executive, 399. Administration, 400. Judiciary, 
State Governments, 401. Army and Navy, 402. 

Uruguay 404 

Historical Sketch, 404. Constitution, Legislature, Executive, 407. Army 
and Navy, 408. 

Venezuela 409 

Historical Sketch, 409. Constitution, Legislature, 410. Executive, 
Judiciary, Army and Navy, 411. Local Government, 412. 

Appendix 413 

Afghanistan, Central African States, 413. Dahomey, Bhutan, 414. 
Hawaii, 415. Luxemburg, Monaco, 416. Nepal, Oman, Samoa, 417. 
Tonga, 418. Table of British Colonial Possessions. 



MAPS. 

Argentine Republic .... 13 

Austria-Hungary 33 

Belgium 53 

Brazil 65 

British Empire 73 

China 117 

Colombia 1^ 

Denmark 137 

Egypt 149 

France 157 

German Empire 179 

Greece 199 

Guatemala 208 

Haiti 213 

Honduras 216 

Italy 221 

Japan 235 

Mexico -. ... 249 

Netherlands ; 263 

Persia 279 

Peru 285 

Russia 303 

Servia 323 

South African Republic 331 

Spain : 335 

Sweden and Norway 347 

Switzerland 357 

Turkey 371 

United States between pp. 396-7 



PREFACE. 

It is with some regret and with many doubts that the 
author sends this httle work to the press. The undertaking 
is too great for the space allowed it, and yet it may be ex- 
plained, as an extenuating circumstance, that there seems to 
be a demand for a work in one volume of moderate size, which 
sliould give in brief a few of the important facts concerning 
the principal governments of the world. The present age is 
one of newspapers and periodicals, and in spite of the fact that 
newspapers and periodicals must necessarily be superficial, 
they have become the most important mediums for literature 
and for news. With this enormous increase of periodical liter- 
ature, there has gone hand in hand a correspondingly enormous 
increase in the number of readers. Many of these readers 
are not and never will be students, but they have begun a new 
era, and they are raising the standard of general education 
very materially in the United States. The great mass of these 
readers of periodical literature have but little time for such 
matters. They are men, women, and children who have 
much to do in life to support themselves, and they must give 
their attention largely to this work. And yet there is a desire 
constantly increasing among them to become better ac- 
quainted with the affairs that are taking place around them. 
Glancing day by day through the newspapers and peri- 
odicals, they find references to contemporary events, domestic 
and foreign, to men and things, which no paper can pretend 
to explain, which, in fact, the editors must take for granted as 
familiar to their readers. 




X GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

It is for such as these that this book is intended, and it is 
hoped that when looking over their papers they find matters 
referred to which are not familiar to them, and yet a knowl- 
edge of which it is necessary for them to have before they can 
understand the criticisms made — it is to be hoped that by 
referring to this work they may find something which will 
give them the information they require. 

If this use is made of it, and if it results in giving correct 
information to such readers, the book will, in the author's 
opinion, have accomplished its purpose. It is open to the 
charge of superficiality, as is the reading of periodical litera- 
ture, and yet a little correct information, even though it be 
superficial, is far better than no information at all. If such 
small amount of knowledge does not do the readers any great 
good, it is still a step in the right direction, and their children 
will have a stimulus to something better and more lasting, 
A small but general advance in the education of every one in 
the United States is as admirable a step as we can desire. 
Students there will always be. We do not need to stimulate 
them. They will work for the love of the work itself. This 
book is not for them. They know far more of the subjects 
treated here than the author — in fact, he has compiled this 
book from their own great works. 

The author's regrets and doubts at seeing this book on the 
press and about to go before the public, are caused by the fear 
that with this object in view, and in spite of considerable 
labor and painstaking, he must have left many things unsaid 
which should have been said ; he may have said many things 
that there was no necessity of saying ; that, above all, he has 
probalbly allowed many mistakes to creep in among so many 
bald statements of fact necessarily put in so condensed a form. 
In view of this, it will be a favor to him if any one finding 
omissions or errors will notify him of them with the object of 
seeing them corrected possibly at a later date. 



PREFACE. Xi 

Several of the governments treated herein are those of states 
that are not sovereign powers. They have been discussed 
under independent heads because their contemporary impor- 
tance seems to warrant a short and separate discussion. On 
the other hand, some independent and sovereign states have 
been purposely omitted, because their immediate importance 
was not sufficient to warrant space being given them when 
that space could be used to so much better purpose in other 
ways. These are omitted since they could be touched upon 
under the head of other states, and space thus saved again. 
Among these are Afghanistan, Bhutan, Congo Free State, 
Corea, Hawaii, Luxemburg, Monaco, Nepal, Oman, Samoa, 
Tonga. Where authorities disagree as to figures of areas, 
populations, etc., the author has been compelled to make the 
selection he deemed most likely to be correct. 

Hamblen Sears. 
New York, 1895. 



THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 



President, 



Dr. Louis Saenz Pen a. 



MINISTRY. 



Minister of Foreign Affairs V. Virasoro 

Minister of Finance Dr. J. A. Terry- 
Minister of Public Instruction J j^ cna+a 

Minister of Justice and Public Works t ■^- ^^sia 

Minister of War General L. Campos 

Minister of Interior Dr, M. Quintana 

TABLE OF STATISTICS. 



Pnyvince. 



Littoral District: 

Buenos Ayres 

Santa F6 

Entre-Rios 

Corrientes 

Andes : 

Rioja 

Catamarca 

San Juan 

Mendoza 

Central : 

Cordova 

San Luis 

Santiago del Estero 

Tucuman 

Northern : 

Salta 

Jujuy 



Territories : 

Misiones 

Formosa 

Chaco 

Pampa 

Rio Negro 

Neuquen 

Chubut 

Santa Cruz 

Tierra del Fuego.. 



Area. 



63,000 
18,000 
45,000 
54,000 

31,500 
31,500 
29,700 
54,000 

54,000 
18,000 
31,500 
13,500 

45,000 
27,000 



515,700 

23,932 
125,612 
191,842 

268,000 



Total I 1,125,086 



Popu- 
lation. 



1,411,160 
240,332 
300 000 
290,000 

100,000 
130,000 
125,000 
160,000 

880.000 
100 000 
160,000 
210,000 



3,896,492 

50,000 
50,000 
40,000 

30,000 



4,066,492 



Capital. 



Buenos Ayres. 
Santa F6. 
Entre-Rios. 
Corrientes. 

Rioja. 
Catamarca. 
San Juan. 
Mendoza. 

Cordova. 
San Luis. 

Santiago del Estero. 
Tucuman. 



200,000 i Salta. 
90,000 Jujuy. 



Misiones. 

Formosa. 

Chaco. 

Pampa. 

Rio Negro. 

Neuquen. 

Chubut. 

Santa Cruz. 

Tierra del Fuego. 



Xll 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 



The Argentine Republic is a collection of states resembling 
in their government and constitution the United States of 
America. It is in the southern central part of South America, 
bounded on the north by Bolivia, Paraguay, Brazil, and 
Uruguay, on the 
east by the Atlantic 
Ocean and Uru- 
guay, on the south 
by the Atlantic 
Ocean, Chile, and 
the- Straits of Ma- 
gellan, and on the 
west by Chile. Bue- 
nos Ayres is the 
capital, a city of 
561,160 inhabitants. 

The country now 
governed under the 
name of the Argen- 
tine Republic has 
been through a re- 
markable history 
in the last one hun- 
dred years. Situ- 
ated in the most fer- 
tile portion of South 
America — perhaps 
of the world — it of- 
fers unusual facili- 
ties for agricultural pursuits and the advance of the arts. 
This has had much to do with the many upheavals the 
country has sustained ; for the character of the people, being, 

13 




History 
since 1800. 



14 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

as it is, vigorous and active, has caused speculation to run 
wild, through gambling in the marvelously fertile land, bring- 
ing panic and crisis in its path and almost invariably ending 
in bloodshed. 

The Argentine Republic in climate, in inhabitants, and 
in government resembles the United States more nearly 
than any of the other South American republics, and it is 
for these same reasons that immigration to the southern 
continent has so largely found its way into Argentina, 
This enormous foreign element mixed with the Argen- 
tine blood has created two classes, the Indians, or natives 
living on the Pampas, and the "Europeans," as they have 
been called, who inhabit the cities. The result is that one 
class adopts and advances with each new step in civilization 
that the world takes, and the other remains in its original 
condition. Here is the true source of the wars that are so 
incessant in the basin of the Rio de la Plata. The two classes 
cannot live under a common government, and they fall to 
fighting on the smallest provocation. 

The Europeans promise, if the country can be maintained 
in a peaceful condition, to make the group of states under 
their common government at Buenos Ayres the great republic 
of America. But up to the present time the growth though 
remarkable has been checked by fierce war or by periods of 
wild speculation. 

All the land in the basin of the Plata until the early part of 
the present century was under the government of Spain as a 
province. The different colonies fought among themselves on 
questions of boundaries and commerce, and up to 1800 the his- 
tory is one of uninterrupted bloodshed. Unfortunately for 
the welfare of the country, wars did not cease with the new 
century. The troubles between England and Spain caused 
hostilities in and about Buenos Ayres. Troops from British 
men-of-war captured the city in 1806, and Sobremonte, the 
Spanish viceroy, was forced to retire. But in 1807 the Ayrean 
forces under General Liniers regained possession of the city, 
and held it in spite of the vigorous attempts of Whitelock to 
overcome the town again. In this contest the people of 
Buenos Ayres won their own battles without the aid of the 
mother-country or the assistance of their viceroy. His con- 



ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 15 

duct during the struggle was one of the first vital causes of 
the feeling against Spain which finally led to independence. 
When a little later Napoleon made his brother king of Spain, 
Buenos Ayres refused to acknowledge him as head of the 
Spanish colonies, and the people rose in open revolt. On the 
19th of July, 1809, Cisneros was made viceroy by the ad- 
herents of Ferdinand VII., and for the first time the city set 
up an independent government. A council was formed May 
25, 1810, and took the name of The Provisional Government of 
the Provinces of the Rio de la Plata. On January 11, 1813, a 
congress assembled at Buenos Ayres for the better government 
of the country and elected Posadas dictator. 

Montevideo and Buenos Ayres were drawn up on opposite 
sides over the question of separation from the mother-country, 
and this soon led to an invasion of the Montevidean territory 
on the part of the Ayrean troops, the defeat of the Mon- 
tevideans, and the spread of hostilities all through the prov- 
inces wherever the two sides of the question came into con- 
tact. 

In 1816 another congress was called at Tucuman, when 
Paysidas was elected president, and on the 9th of July the 
provinces declared their independence of Spanish rule. The 
great territory split into four independent republics : Para- 
guay, Bolivia, Uruguay, and the Argentine Republic. These 
four governnaents, so important to each other in every way, 
have been in almost continual warfare with each other ever 
since over questions of boundary and commercial arrange- 
ments. 

The Chilean and Argentine forces carried the war for inde- 
pendence into Peru and eventually captured the city of Lima, 
the center of Spanish influence in South America, on the 9th 
of July, 1821. Peace was finally made in December, 1824, but 
is was not until 1842 that Spain formally recognized the in- 
dependence of her former colonies. 

Rivadavia, president in 1825, strove to build up a strong cen- 
tralized government. His followers took the name of Unitari- 
ans, while the opposition became the Federals ; and these two 
parties worked against each other for several years during the 
early political history. Vincente Lopez succeeded Rivadavia, 
and in 1827 Dorrego in turn succeeded Lopez. Dorrego be- 



16 . GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

longed to the Federal party and his election was the signal 
for renewed hostilities. Lavalle, the Unitarian general, came 
out openly against the administration and in 1828 defeated 
Dorrego and Rosas, the commander of the Federal troops. 
Dorrego was shot, but Rosas soon gained the upper hand and 
became virtual dictator. He retained his place at the head of 
affairs for a comparatively long time, largely because he 
maintained a legislature that was obliged to pass the acts he 
proposed. In 1838 troubles with France led to the blockade of 
Buenos Ayres. Rosas still held the power and maintained a 
reign of terror when Lavalle tried to rally the Unitarian party 
against him. Later, in 1842-44, Rosas carried his barbarities 
so far that he closed the Plata and attempted to gain control 
of the Banda Oriental. This led at once to foreign interven- 
tion and the attempt to open the river. War burst forth 
again between Buenos Ayres and the surrounding countries, 
especially Brazil, the result being the neutralization of the 
Plata, which insured the highway to Bolivia and Peru for all 
time. Finally the Brazilian forces took the city of Buenos 
Ayres, and the rule of Rosas was at an end. 

Another assembly of the governments of the provinces re- 
sulted in the provisional appointment of Urquiza, the general 
of the successful troops in the late war, as director of the 
Argentine Republic. A constitution was thereupon proposed 
and adopted. The Senate was composed of two delegates from 
each province, and the House of Deputies of members elected 
one for a certain number of inhabitants. The Senate was no 
sooner elected, however, than Buenos Ayres objected on the 
ground that it had too small a representation in proportion to 
the other provinces ; and hostilities commenced again. Under 
Urquiza the thirteen provinces joined forces, and the city 
of Buenos Ayres was blockaded until in July, 1853, Sir C. 
Hotham, commander of the English fleet in these waters, 
agreed with Urquiza to recognize the independence of the 
provinces from the government of Buenos Ayres and to guar- 
antee the neutrality of the river. 

Obligado became governor of Buenos Ayres, and peace was 
again secured for the country. Parana became the capital of 
the thirteen provinces. This separation lasted until 1859, 
when, owing to disagreement in regard to commercial arrange- 



ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 17 

ments, hostilities again began between the two independent 
governments. The fighting resulted in the defeat of Alsina, 
governor of Buenos Ayres. The city was retaken by the 
Argentine forces, Alsina was forced to resign, and the two 
governments became once more one with Buenos Ayres as the 
capital. After two years of the presidency of Derqui over the 
fourteen provinces, in 1862 General Mitre became ruler by 
force of arms. He centralized the government at Buenos 
Ayres, and Urquiza retired to fill the governor's chair at 
Entre-Rios. 

Within two years the great Paraguay war had begun, and 
Lopez led his country into a long series of battles that nearly 
wasted its resources and almost exterminated the male popula- 
tion. Lopez applied to the government at Buenos Ayres for 
permission to pass through the Argentine territory at Corrien- 
tes with an armed force directed against Brazil, and when the 
permission was refused on the ground of the neutrality ob- 
served by the Confederation, he attacked and captured Cor- 
rientes. News of this overt act arrived at the seat of govern- 
ment in May, 1865, and the greater portion of the Confedera- 
tion was at once bound up in a common cause against a com- 
mon enemy. Internal jealousies were forgotten in the greater 
questions involved and an alliance against Lopez was soon ar- 
ranged between Brazil, the Banda Oriental, and Argentina. 
Armed forces moved from each of these states into Paraguay, 
and the record of the events of the next five years has hardly 
a parallel in history. The proportion of killed and wounded 
on both sides was very large and the fighting was of the fiercest 
kind. The Argentines were trained by the experience of 
earlier battles and now developed into the most wild and dar- 
ing fighters. Paraguay would have been quite devastated had 
not the rebellious spirit appeared again in the Argentine prov- 
inces and compelled that government to recall a part of its 
troops from the foreign war to quell the rising rebellion. 

This was finally suppressed in 1867, but hostilities still con- 
tinued with unabated force in Paraguay until, in 1870, Lopez 
was assassinated, and fighting then ceased because the mili- 
tary forces of Paraguay were almost annihilated. Peace was 
declared and the questions of boundary settled for the time, 
though for a while it seemed probable that Brazil and the 



18 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

Argentine Confederation in their turn would go to war. But 
the services of General Mitre, who went as especial ambas- 
sador to Brazil, brought about a peaceful and satisfactory set- 
tlement and avoided war. 

General Mitre had been succeeded in office by Sarmiento at 
the expiration of his term in 1868, but the new president 
maintained peace only two years. A revolutionary body 
arose in the province of Entre-Rios under the leadership of 
Lopez Jordan. Urquiza, the governor, was assassinated on 
April 12, and Jordan took control of the government. Such 
treasonable actions and subsequent proceedings led to the in- 
vasion of the province by the Buenos Ayrean troops who, in 
1873, finally completed the destruction of the Jordan faction. 
Entre-Rios again became part of the Confederation and has 
remained so ever since. 

The advance of civilization in other countries, gradually in- 
troduced into the republic from this time, has added ma- 
terially to the prosperity of the country, and but for the ever 
continuing hostilities it would be far in advance of its present 
state. In 1874 Mitre again tried to gain control of the govern- 
ment on the retirement of Sarmiento and the election of 
Avellaneda. He instigated a revolution which lasted seventy- 
six days, but which was finally suppressed by the energy and 
determination of the new president. No sooner was the war 
over than the country was again stranded by a severe crisis in 
financial matters from which it did not recover for many years. 

The constitution of the Argentine Confederation has been 
Consti- through many changes since its first years, not so much in its 
tution. letter as in the spirit in which it was observed and carried out. 
It was originally adopted, in a form similar to that in force at 
present, on the separation of Buenos Ayres from the Confed- 
eration in 1853. It was somewhat modified in 1860 when 
Buenos Ayres again joined the fourteen republican provinces 
and Alsina's rule came to an end. 

The office of president has seldom until late years continued 
to its full length of term under one man ; for revolution and 
rebellion have cut short the term of one president to put in a 
successor. The details of the different articles are confessedly 
taken from the United States constitution and differ only in a 
few minor points. 



ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 19 

The legislative portion of the government is vested in two 
houses, a Senate and a House of Representatives, whose Legisla- 
powers are quite similar to those of the United States in re- *^''®* 
gard to financial legislation, to the origination of bills in 
either House, and to the necessity for the sanction of both be- 
fore a bill can become a law, etc. Both Houses meet on the 1st 
of May in each year and sit for five months. The Senate is 
made up of thirty members, two being returned from each 
province and two from the city of Buenos Ayres. The mem- 
bers are elected by the state legislatures for terms of nine 
years, but elections occur once in three years, and one third of 
the Senate changes at each election. To become a candidate 
one must have an income of $500, be at least thirty years of 
age, and have been enrolled as a citizen of the republic for at 
least ten years. The members meet in the Parliament Houses 
at Buenos Ayres, the vice-president being ex-officio president. 

The House of Representatives is composed at present of 
eighty-six members, which is too small a number according to 
an article of the constitution which calls for one representa- 
tive for every 20,000 inhabitants. They meet at the same time 
and place as the Senate and hold office for a term of four years. 
Elections occur once in two years, and therefore ^If the House 
changes every two years. The election is dir^tly from the 
people, and a candidate must have been a citizen of the re- 
public for four years and be at least twenty-five years of age. 
The routine of business is substantially that of the United 
States House, but in practice is not strictly followed. During 
war times the president becomes virtual dictator. 

The president has powers and duties similar to those of the 
president of the United States. He is commander-in-chief of ^^^^^^^^^' 
the army and navy, he is the executive officer of the adminis- 
tration, and he appoints the officers of his government in the 
military, civil, and judicial departments. The president and 
vice-president are elected for a term of six years by an elec- 
toral college composed of delegates from the provinces, two 
for each senator and representative and for each senator from 
the city of Buenos Ayres. The president is not eligible for 
reelection at once. He has a salary of 136,000, and must be a 
Roman Catholic, at least thirty years of age, and a native of 
the Argentine Republic. The vice-president must have the 



20 



G0VEIIN3IENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



Judicial. 



Adminis- 
tration. 



Army and 
Navy. 



same qualifications, and receives a salary of $18,000. He 
succeeds the president in case of the latter's decease or inca- 
pacity. 

There is a Supreme Court at Buenos Ayres composed of a 
chief justice and five judges. They constitute a court of 
appeals for all courts, and decide on questions of constitution- 
ality. There are civil and criminal courts in all the states, 
under a system arranged by the state in which the jurisdic- 
tion comes. These are increased as the growth of the country 
requires. 

The five ministers of state are the ministers of foreign affairs, 
war, interior, justice, and finance. These constitute a cabinet 
responsible to the president and, in practice, to the vote of 
Congress as well. It has been customary in the past for the 
ministry to resign on receiving a distinct intimation in the 
form of a hostile vote from each house of the legislature. 
These ministers receive a salary of $16,800 a year. 

The army of the republic is uncertain. It has varied from 

year to year for some time, owing to the frequent revolutions 

that have thinned the ranks. It stands to-day substantially 

as follows : 

Officers 249 

Subalterns 880 

Engineers 238 

Artillery 789 

Foot soldiers 2,331 

Cavalry 2,227 

Total 6,714 

This little army is kept in good condition, and the Argen- 
tine soldiers are the most advanced tactitians of South 
America. 

The navy is composed of a small number of craft, but most 
of them are in good repair and of modern manufacture. Sev- 
eral new ironclads and ships of war are under construction at 
the present time. The navy consists of 1,500 men and, exclu- 
sive of ships that are building, the fleet is as follows : 

Ironclads 3 

Cruiser 1 

Gunboats 6 

Transports 2 

Dispatch boats 3 

Torpedo boats 9 

Total 24 



ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 21 

The Catholic Church is the recognized church, but all other 
creeds are tolerated and they find naany supporters. Civil 
marriage became a law in 1888. 

Education is farther advanced here than elsewhere in South 
America, for it is a policy of the federal and state govern- 
ments to foster education. The charge of primary education 
is with each state legislature within its particular jurisdiction, 
and the government at Buenos Ayres (federal) takes charge of 
the schools in the territories. There are 3,402 of these schools, 
controlled by a board of education. The higher instruction 
consists of two universities, sixteen lyceums, one school of 
mines, a naval and a military school, and two colleges of 
agriculture. The Cordova observatory is the best in South 
America. 

Congress confines itself to national affairs, and the states 
have legislatures and governors of their own. They consti- 
tute individual governments having authority in all matters 
not expressly given into the charge of the federal government. 
The governors are elected by the people of each state as in the 
United States, and elections occur once in three years. 

After the accession of Avellaneda, on October 12, 1874, the History 
commercial growth became more rapid and General Boca, since 1874. 
who succeeded to the presidency, did a great deal to encourage 
the material growth of the country. Boca retired on October 
12, 1886, having named his brother-in-law as his successor. 
Dr. M. J. Celman was accordingly elected and held office 
until he was compelled to resign on August 6, 1890, owing to 
the popular uprising against his administration and its finan- 
cial policy. 

The greatest event, politically speaking, during Boca's bene- 
ficial administration, was the accomplishment of the treaty 
with Chile on the boundary question in 1880. By its articles 
the boundary between the Argentine Bepublic and Chile is 
settled forever. The southern division is on the 52d degree of 
latitude to the Cordilleras, following these north to the Bio 
Negro. The island of Tierra del Fuego is divided at longi- 
tude 68° 34^ west from Greenwich, the western part and the 
smaller islands on that side belonging to Chile, the eastern 
and adjacent islands to. the Argentine Bepublic. The Straits 
of Magellan are forever neutral. 



22 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

The financial history of the Argentine RepubUc in tlie last 

two decades has been a lesson in the powers and evils of specu- 

^rfs^s! lation. The changes have been so great and they have shaken 

the country to such an extent, that they have occupied a large 

share of the world's interest in the republic. 

The troubles originally began with the yellow fever epi- 
demic in Buenos Ayres in 1870. The city's drainage was 
atrocious; it brought on the epidemic, and finally led the 
authorities to order a rearrangement of the entire drainage of 
the capital. To facilitate this the Provincial Bank of Buenos 
Ayres negotiated a loan to meet the expenses of remodeling 
the system. At the same time, the fever drove people into the 
suburbs and created a small "boom" in land about the city, 
the bank being at hand to loan its money out for a short time. 
Speculation began at once and continued to increase until 
suddenly the bank called in its loans, and speculators found 
themselves with unsalable securities on their hands. Matters 
were only made worse by the Mitre rebellion in 1874 on the 
election of Avellaneda. The fighting was in and about the 
city, and the land was for the time worthless. Failures began 
to occur on all sides and the Ayrean currency fell off". 

The crisis having passed, the years following, up to 1880 and 
later, were again years of gradual increase in speculation. 
Land on the great Pampas soon rose in value when the people 
discovered its suitability for cattle raising. Landowners who 
wished to increase their facilities but who had little capital 
found they could borrow money on their land, and the 
Hypothecary Bank was started to supply a means for assisting 
those who, on the one hand, had money to loan on such good 
security, and those who, on the other, had need of the money 
and had the land to give as security. 

The history of the Provincial Bank was repeated. Wild 
speculation set in almost immediately, and it was not long 
before changes in land securities were made from hour to hour 
without the possessor knowing their intrinsic value. Here 
was the groundwork for another crisis. At the same time 
there was the difficulty of having three different currencies in 
the republic. To obviate this the government instituted a 
national banking system under the name of the National 
Bank and a paper currency based on deposits of gold. With 



ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 23 

this currency, money became easy, especially to m.embers of 
the administration, and it was in its turn a great encourage- 
ment to speculation. 

Coupled with these two came a third stimulus, which, 
legitimate enough in itself, has had eventually an evil influ- 
ence. As cattle raising grew it became evident that the 
business would be wonderfully increased if the cattle could 
be preserved from the depredations of the Indians — the 
wild tribes that lived by stealing whole herds of cattle and 
driving them into the south. Alsina, minister of war, began 
a war of extermination on these tribes as early as 1875, and 
later dug a trench across the southern portion of the country 
on the borders of Patagonia which, being about ten feet deep 
and as many wide, prevented the savages from driving large 
herds out of the country suddenly. Troops were then sent out 
and the whole country scoured, with the result that the natives 
were either killed or driven across the border into Patagonia. 
General Roca, the successor of Alsina, continued and consum- 
mated the work. 

Here again was a stimulus to speculation. Land became at 
once more valuable and fortunes were realized in a compara- 
tively short time. The government oflfered the land on easy 
terms in order to settle the country, and by paying a small 
sum a purchaser secured his land at once, agreeing to pay the 
balance in installments from time to time. The result was 
that hundreds of persons paid their first installments, went 
with the deeds to the Hypothecary Bank and borrowed on 
them sufficient sums to meet the first few installments as 
they came due, and then waited for the price of the land to 
rise. At first the sales were made at enormous profit on a 
capital that was practically nothing. 

It was not long before a larger currency was needed to keep 
up with the increasing transactions, and the government 
issued more paper without taking the precaution to make the 
necessary deposits of gold. The next step was a depreciation 
of the currency, and the third the issue of a "forced" cur- 
rency. With the growing premium on gold and the conse- 
quent uncertainty in all business transactions, immigration 
dropped off and the lands did not fill up as fast as expected. 
With the depreciation in paper the speculation and gambling 



jmamwmm 



24 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

in its variation from day to day exceeded anything that had 
occurred before, and with the falling off in immigration there 
came a check to the rise in land. 
President Celman had delayed the crisis by changing the 
Revolution, ministry and giving out on May 10, 1890, at the opening of 
Congress, that the currency would be no further inflated by 
the issuance of paper money without specie deposits. Seilor 
Uriburu, the new minister of finance, saw what abuses had 
been practiced and immediately proposed an English loan of 
$50,000,000, demanding at the same time the dismissal of the 
directors of the National Bank. Celman, however, refused 
this and Uriburu at once resigned. He was succeeded June 
9 by Seiior Garcia, who started to maintain his policy. But 
Celman interfered again, broke his word to the people, and in 
July ordered another issue of paper money. 

This was too much for the people to bear in view of the 
events of the last few years. A panic arose and an organiza- 
tion called the Union Civica, formed to oppose the govern- 
ment of Celman, began to gain ground among the citizens 
of Buenos Ayres. A conspiracy against the president was at 
the same time discovered among the soldiers in the heart of 
the city, and a watch was set on them from that time. This 
only increased the growing sentiment against the administra- 
tion, and it became evident to Pellegrini, the vice-president, 
and Roca, the minister of war, that Celman 's resignation was 
the only means of avoiding an uprising. They at once began 
to urge him to resign. On July 23 the president went so far as 
to consent that Congress should name his successor without 
suggestions from him. But it was too late. In three days the 
insurrection broke out at the barracks. The troops made a 
demonstration in the city and were joined by the populace. 
General Campos took command and firing began between the 
troops and the police. At the same time, a revolutionary gov- 
ernment was set up, and on July 27 more troops went over to 
that side. President Celman set out on the next day to pro- 
cure military aid, proclaiming the country in a state of siege 
and ordering out the guard of several of the cities of the re- 
public. Returning on the 29th with more troops, he found 
that an armistice had been brought about by Pellegrini. The 
fighting had killed and wounded nearly 6,000 people. 



ARGENTINE REPUBIilC. , 25 

The demand was now made on all sides for the unconditional 
resignation of Celman. Roca and Pellegrini again urged it as 
the only thing necessary to bring about peace. Still the presi- 
dent hesitated and tried to form a new ministry. The men 
appointed refused to serve. He then offered seats to the Op- 
position. They declined to take them. Finally he tried to 
appoint his successor, but unconditional surrender of his office 
was insisted on, and on August 6 he sent in his resignation. 
Seiior Pellegrini succeeded to the presidency according to the 
constitution, and his severe but unquestionable execution of 
the laws and his methods employed for repairing the credit of 
the country did much to restore quiet and avert a revolution. 

The first acts of the new administration were the dismissal 
of the National Bank directors and the negotiation of two 
loans in the form of four and a half and five per cent bonds to 
the amount of 155,000,000. Sixty million dollars were issued 
on securities to enable the government to recall the National 
Bank issues of paper, and a loan of $20,000,000 was made at 
the same time to meet present interests coming due. Gold 
premium soon dropped to two hundred. 

In 1892, after Pena's inauguration, a war of political parties 
began which extended into the provinces of Corrientes, Santi- 
ago del Estero, and eventually centered in the province of 
Buenos Ayres. Pena began by slighting General Boca's party, 
and as Boca held the greater portion of the solid men of the 
country with him, the result was outbreak and change of 
ministry twice in a year. The Badicals gained power with 
Pena at first, and finally secured some of the portfolios in the 
ministry, but on August 13 the Badical ministry was forced to 
resign, the present ministry came into power, and two days 
later a state of siege was decreed. Fighting occurred around 
La Plata between the Badicals and what may be called the 
Conservatives, and this might have broken into general revo- 
lution had not Dr. Pena,. on September 15, appointed Boca 
commander of the situation with military powers. Boca's 
prompt methods were the same as those he employed a few 
years before, and he soon had the country quiet. Toward the 
close of 1894 a conservative wave had set in which up to the 
present has been powerful enough to hold the present ministry 
in power. 



AUSTRALIA. 

The group of colonies of the British Empire that have lately 
formed a union in the South Pacific and which are known as 
Australasia, are : New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, 
South Australia, and Western Australia, on the continent of* 
Australia ; Tasmania, an island 120 miles from Victoria ; New 
Zealand, the large island with the surrounding smaller groups; 
Fiji, 1,100 miles to the north of New Zealand and including 
about one hundred smaller islands ; and finally New Guinea, 
the southeastern portion of the island of that name, 150 miles 
from Queensland. These colonies, especially those on the 
continent of Australia, promise to become a federated govern- 
ment, perhaps independen t of the mother-country. 

Australia was made a penal settlement for English criminals 
in 1788 and remained so until 1839. The settlement was first 
made at Fort Jackson in New South Wales, which then occu- 
pied the eastern third of the territory of the continent. Out 
of this the colony grew slowly, spreading down the coast, 
other penal colonies having been started from time to time. 
Tasmania was one of the earliest, and about 1800 the present 
province of Victoria was first settled at Fort Phillip by emi- 
grants from Tasmania. Western Australia began similarly 
with a penal settlement at King George's Sound in 1825, and 
Swan River in 1827. South Australia began with an Australian 
Settlement Company which started a colony on the plan of 
Wakefield's New Zealand settlement. The gold discoveries 
of 1851 gave the impetus which began the wonderful growth of 
the continent that has placed it in its present important 
position. 

New South Wales lies in the southeastern part of Australia. 

Consti- Its area is 390,700 square miles, with a population of 1,122,200 

tutions. ijj jg89^ ipj^g capital is Sydney. The colony was a penal 

settlement in 1788, and in 1824 a council was appointed to assist 

26 



AUSTRALIA. 27 

the governor. In 1865 two assemblies were granted the col- 
ony. They are elective, one being a Legislative Council of 
seventy members. In the year 1890 the Assembly consisted of 
one hundred and thirty-seven members elected from seventy- 
four districts. There is a governor, the Earl of Jersey, who is 
appointed by the crown and receives £7,000 salary. He is 
assisted by ten cabinet ministers. The Church of England is 
the state church, and education is conducted in 2,373 schools 
and the University of Sydney, which stands very high. The 
military force is 8,134 oflficers and men. 

Victoria is in the southeastern portion of Australia, lying 
south of New South Wales. It is 87,884 square miles in area, 
and the population in 1890 was 1,131,247. Melbourne is the 
capital and the largest city on the continent, having 360,000 
inhabitants. Victoria was a part of New South Wales frona 
1834 to 1854 ; and in the latter year it was made by act of 
Parliament into an independent colony. There is a Legisla- 
tive Council composed of forty -eight men elected to serve 
six years, one third retiring every two years. The Lower 
House is the Legislative Assembly, composed of ninety-five 
members in 1889, elected by universal manhood suffrage. 
The governor, the Earl of Hopetown, was appointed by the 
queen in 1889. He receives £10,000 a year, and is assisted by 
ten cabinet ministers. There is no state church, and all creeds 
stand the same before the government. Education is com- 
pulsory, and is represented by the University of Melbourne, 
three colleges joined to it, and 2,063 state and 782 private 
schools. The military'' force consists of 5,439 naen and officers, 
and a fleet of fourteen vessels of war. 

Queensland lies north of New South Wales, and occupies the 
northeastern portion of Australia. Its area is 668,497 square 
miles, which includes the islands lying off its coast. The 
population in 1890 was 406,658, exclusive of the wild tribes of 
natives, and the capital is Brisbane. Queensland was made a 
separate colony in 1859, before which time it was a part of 
New South Wales. Two houses have been granted the colony 
since its foundation : a Legislative Council of thirty-nine 
members nominated by the crown for life, and a Legislative 
Assembly composed at present of seventy-two members elected 
for five years. The executive officer is a governor, General Sir 



28 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

H. Wylie Norman, who is appointed by the crown with a 
salary of £5,000. He is assisted by an executive council of 
eight ministers. There is no state church and education is 
supposed to be compulsory. There are public and private 
grammar and primary schools to the number of 789. The 
military force consists of 140 regular troops assisted by 2,500 
niilitia, and a fleet of four war vessels. 

South Australia is situated in the central part of the conti- 
nent of Australia. It has an area of 903,690 square miles, the 
colony having been added to, since its foundation in 1835, by 
a grant to the South Australian Colonization Company. 
Adelaide is the capital, and the population of the colony is 
estimated at 324,484. A constitution was given to South 
Australia in 1856, and by its articles a Legislative Council and 
a House of Assembly were instituted. The former has twenty- 
four members, one third of the men retiring every three years, 
eight being elected to fill their places. The House of Assembly 
is made up of fifty-four members elected by universal manhood 
suflTrage, which requires only six months' residence in the 
voting district. The term of office is three years. The ex- 
ecutive officer is a governor, the Earl of Kintore, who is 
appointed by the crown, and he is assisted by six ministers 
composing an executive council. There is no state church. 
Education is in charge of the educational department and con- 
sists of compulsory attendance at the schools, which number 
540. The military force consists of a corps of forty-six regular 
troops and 2,660 militia, with one war vessel. 

Western Australia comprises the western part of Australia, 
and has an area of about 975,920 square miles ; the capital is 
Perth. Western Australia became a separate colony in 1828, 
when it was separated from New South Wales, but it has 
been only sparsely settled until within the last twenty years. 
By an act of 1890 a constitution similar to that of the other col- 
onies was given it, and, in place of the governor and council, 
a somewhat restricted governorship and two houses were in- 
stituted. The two houses are the Legislative Council of 
fifteen members nominated by the governor, and an Assembly 
of thirty members elected by manhood suffrage. The Assem- 
bly term is for four years. The executive officer is Sir W. 
C. F. Robinson, the governor, who has a salary of £9,000 j)ex 



AUSTRALIA. 29 

annum, and who is assisted by a cabinet of five ministers. 
There is no state church. Education is compulsory. There 
is a sufficient police force in the colony, and the militia con- 
sists of 600 volunteers. 

A union of the Australian colonies under a common govern- 
ment was first broached in 1849, before the colonies themselves Federation 
were in any condition to make such a union at all effective or 
desirable. It was not until they had legislatures, however, 
that the matter came up for serious consideration. In 1857, 
after several attempts, the legislature of Victoria had a com- 
mittee appointed to consider the question of federation, and 
the result was a report that urged the necessity for a union, 
both as a defense against intercolonial hostilities and as a stim- 
ulus to more general growth. Three years later the same 
question came up again at the instigation of Sir Gavan Duffy 
of Victoria, and with a warm partisan in Sir Henry Parkes, 
premier of New South Wales, but the time was not ripe. 

It was 1870, therefore, before another serious attempt was 
made, and then a Royal Commission appointed for the pur- 
pose returned a report favorable to the union. It advised a 
federation that should be designed to make Australia an in- 
dependent, sovereign state. 

In 1883, when Germany and France began their search for 
colonial possessions, the question of unity was again brought 
up, with a view to common defense in case either of the great 
powers should encroach upon English territory in the Pacific. 
A Permissive Act was asked for and obtained from the British 
Parliament. It allowed the colonies to unite if they chose ; 
and two years later a convention was summoned by the 
Victorian legislature, to be composed of two delegates from 
each of the colonial legislatures and one from each of the 
crown colonies. This Federal Council was a makeshift, and 
as such was not approved by all the advocates of federation. 
Its legislative powers extended over matters concerning fish- 
eries, infiux of criminals, general acts of defense, financial 
legislation, and civil law. But it met with a cold reception. 
Political and colonial jealousies in the legislature of New 
South Wales have always made a majority against the ques- 
tion of federation, but the government of Victoria, through 
the personal efforts of Sir Gavan Duffy, has unfailingly 



30 GOVEBNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

brought the question up year after year. The appointment of 
the Federal Council to meet in 1886 was the first victory, but 
New South Wales sent no delegates, and nothing was accom- 
plished. In 1887 the delegates met in London at the invita- 
tion of the queen. In 1888 nothing more than a formal 
meeting took place. Then New South Wales began to take 
an active part. In 1890 a preliminary meeting was held at 
Sydney to discuss a broader union, and it was there decided to 
call the National Australian Convention, which met in March 
and April of the following year at the same place, and has left 
a record of one of the most interesting political discussions of 
modern times. The clauses of the constitution that are the re- 
sult of this convention comprise the most advanced republican 
ideas tempered by the conservatism of the British constitution. 
All the principal powers of the United States Congress are given 
it except the making of war. Most of the specific powers of 
the Canadian Parliament are included, and, as in the American 
constitution, all the powers not especially given the federal 
government are delegated to the colonies themselves. The 
federal government has exclusive right in matters concerning 
defense, customs, excise, post and telegraph, navigation 
and shipping, marriage and divorce, coinage, banking, foreign 
affairs, and taxation in all its forms. The federal legislature 
can deal with all the islands of the Pacific and has the decid- 
ing voice in all matters of intercolonial waterways, railways, 
and appeals on questions of importance to two or more of the 
colonies. There is to be a Parliament of two houses, one 
elected on the basis of population — the House of Representa- 
tives — the other composed of members appointed by the 
colonial legislatures — the Senate. The chief source of discus- 
sion was relative to the standing of the Houses toward each 
other, and it was finally decided that both should have the 
power to originate bills, except in the single case of money 
bills which was left exclusively with the House of Represent- 
atives. This was considered necessary in a government 
where the chief officer was not appointed by any party and 
where there was to be a responsible ministry. In 1892 and 
1893 there were meetings of the Federation Convention, but 
there is still a want of unanimity throughout the country 
favoring the union. The general feeling in the federation is 



AUSTRALIA. 31 

advisable, but each colony wants some changes made in the 
bill of 1891. 

In the summer of 1894 Sir George Gibbs, premier of New 
South Wales, wrote an open letter to Hon. J. B. Pat- 
terson, premier of Victoria, proposing a new scheme for 
federation. He suggests gradual federation, and as a begin- 
ning speaks of the possible union of Victoria and New South 
Wales. If this proved successful, he says the other colonies 
would follow. The chief features of his idea of federation in- 
clude one viceroy, one parliament of two houses, one tariff, 
one system of excise duties, one joint debt, one railway 
system, one land revenue and land law, one administration of 
defense and of postal telegraph, one provincial government, 
one supreme court, one title to be, after South Australia and 
Queensland come in, the Dominion of Australia or United 
Australia. As a matter of fact, union is not yet consum- 
mated, though it probably will be in time. 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 



Emperor, 



Francis Joseph I. 



RULERS SINCE 1800. 

Emperor Francis 1 1792-1835 

Emperor Ferdinand I 1835-1848 

Emperor Francis Josepli 1 1848- 

MINISTRY. 

For the whole Empire. 

Minister of Foreign Affairs ...Count G. Kalnoky de Korospatak 

Minister of War General E. de Krieghammer 

Minister of Finance Benjamin de Kallay 

Austrian Ministry.— President, - - Prince A. Windischgratz 

Minister of the Interior Marquis O. de Bacqueham 

Minister of Public Instruction Dr. de Madeyski 

Minister of Finance Dr. de Plener 

Minister of Agriculture Count J. Falkenhaym 

^•ifiSaf §rnomy!!.°* } C°>">' «• Wurmbrand-Stuppach 

Minister of Justice Count F. Schonborn 

Without portfolio A. de Saworski 

Hungarian Ministry. 

Minister of Finance Dr. A. Weckerle 

Minister of National Defense Baron G. Fejervary 

Minister of the King's Person Count L. Tisza 

Minister of the Interior C. Hierouymi 

Minister of Education and Public Worship Count A. Csaky 

Minister of Justice Dr. D. de Szilagyi 

Minister of Industry and Commerce B. de Lukacs 

Minister of Agriculture Count A. Bethlen 

Minister for Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia E. de Josipovich 

TABLE OF STATISTICS. 



State. 



Area. 



Popu- 
lation. 



Members 

in 

Reichstag. 



Government, 



Austria. 

Lower Austria 

Upper Austria 

Salzburg 

Styria 

Carinthia 

Carniola 

Kiistenland 

Tyrol and Vorarlberg.. 

Bohemia 

Moravia 

Silesia 

Galicia 

Bukowina 

Dalmatia 

Total, Austria 

Hungary. 
Hungary and Transyl 

vania 

Fiume 

Croatia and Slavonia.., 

Total, Hungary 

Grand total 



7,654 
4,631 
2,767 
8,670 
4,005 
3,856 
3,084 

11,324 

20,060 
8,583 
1,987 

30,307 
4,035 
4,940 



2,666,846 
784,163 
173,962 

1,288,239 
364,548 
504,047 
708,726 

929,971 

5,851,812 

2,250,386 

602,297 

6,589,383 

651,603 

529,850 



37 
17 

5 
23 

9 
10 
12 

w 

92 
36 
10 
63 
9 



Gov. 
Gov. 
Pres. 
Gov. 
Pres. 
Pres. 
Gov. 



and Diet, 
and Diet, 
and Diet, 
and Diet, 
and Diet, 
and Diet, 
and 3 Diets. 



115,903 

108,258 

8 

16,773 



23,895,833 



15,030,306 

22,836 

2,127,829 



353 
Diet. 

413 

'46" 



125,039 



17,180,971 



453 



204,942 



41,076,804 
^2 ~ 



Gov. and 2 Diets. 

Gov. and Diet. 
Gov. and Diet. 
Pres. and Diet. 
Gov. and Diet. 
Pres. and Diet. 
Gov. and Diet. 



Diet. 

Governor. 
Ban and Diet. 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 



The Austro-Hungarian Empire lies in the central part of 
Eastern Europe. It is bounded on the north by Germany and 
Kussia, on the east by Russia, on the south by Roumania and 
Servia, the Turkish Empire and Montenegro, the Adriatic 
Sea and Italy, and on the west by Switzerland and Germany. 
It is composed of a collection of states, the empire of Austria, 
and the kingdom of Hungary. The emperor of Austria is 
also king of Hun- 




c Sofa 



gary, and the two 
governments are 
administered by a 
common ministry 
and a common pre- 
mier. The present 
emperor, Francis 
Joseph I., succeed- 
ed to the throne in 
1848 on the resig- 
nation of his uncle, 
Ferdinand I., and 
the refusal of his 
father to take office. The capital is Vienna, with a population 
of 1,364,548, and the inhabitants are German, Czech, Slav, 
Hungarian, and Turkish, speaking different languages and 
maintaining .different customs. 

The history of the Austrian Empire from 1815 to the revolu- 
tionary period of 1848 is the history of a movement, more 
successful here than elsewhere in Europe, toward the conserv- 
ative monarchical system. There was, on the one hand, the 
monarchical party and, on the other, the movement toward 
liberalism and self-government, as in the other states of 
Europe at this time, but the conservative party practically suc- 

33 



History 
since 1815. 



34 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

ceeded in keeping the control throughout the period, and to-day 
it holds the upper hand. At the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, 
Austria, through the diplomacy of Metternich, who was prime 
minister for many years, obtained the additional territory of 
Lombardy and Venice in Italy, the Illj-rian provinces, the 
Tyrol, Vorarlberg, Salzburg, and Dalmatia in the south, 
besides Galicia in the north, and she has retained all but the 
first two since then. 

At the same time, the emperors of Austria and Russia, to- 
gether with the king of Prussia, entered into a compact which, 
though it at first pretended to exist only for the encouragement 
of peace and the spread of religion, soon proved to have for its 
sole purpose the prevention of the spread of free thought 
and republican ideas among the people. Austria was the 
leader in this movement, and Metternich guided Austria. 
The press, after the liberal movement of the first quarter of 
the century, was now put under strict surveillance, trial by 
jury was abolished, a sj'stem of secret police was instituted, 
and everything was done to kill what trace of republicanism 
still remained in the empire. 

In this crushing out of free thought Metternich was con- 
sistent up to his fall in 1848. The Austrian people had no 
opportunity for expressing their opinions, and when any such 
attempt was made on their part it was immediately sup- 
pressed. The spirit of the governing power was directly 
opposed to the spirit of individual freedom that was just then 
gathering so much strength in Germany. The "'Poison of 
Freedom ' was suppressed in order that the legal government 
might be maintained on a firmer basis and the people of the 
empire kept happy and contented." In 1820, when the in- 
surrections began to appear in Naples and Southern Italy, 
Metternich called the Troppau and afterward the Laibach 
Congresses, to secure the permission of Europe to put them 
down. In 1822 the same was done with the Piedmont up- 
rising. Another revolt began gradually to gain strength in 
Italj', whereupon towns were fortified and Milan and Venice 
held under careful guard. 

Austria received a severe check in this course of procedure 
when the French Revolution of 1830 broke out. Stringent 
measures were adopted to stop the spread of this movement 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 35 

into Italy, but the sentiment of the right of free thought and 
self-government had become too strong by this time, and it 
continued to increase in Italy, in Germany, and in France, 
until in 1848 the February Revolution was the match that set 
all Europe in flames. Revolutions spread eastward and at 
last carried Austria with them. The people took the reins 
out of Metternich's hands and in March the populace in 
Vienna gained control of the government. Demands were 
made at once for the propagation of the budget. This 
occurred on the 11th. On the 12th and 13th the people of 
Vienna were crying for Metternich, but he had resigned and 
was far on his way to England. 

The political history of Austria for the next two years is 
remarkable. Free press, the establishment of national guards, 
and the calling of a national assembly, were demanded by the 
people. But though these were at once granted the new 
movement was not satisfied. The emperor was forced to fly 
on the 17th, and the people had complete control of the city 
and government. In a short time the emperor returned from 
Innsbruck, and a plan for a constitution was drawn up which 
led to further troubles and the flight of the emperor a second 
time. 

The empire was now in a critical condition ; foreign aflTairs 
weakened the standing of the government abroad. In Italy 
the inhabitants arose in Milan and Venice and expelled the 
Austrians. With the aid of the king of Sardinia the Italians 
soon had strength enough to declare war against Austria, but 
it was not long before Austrian troops had retaken Milan and 
Venice and regained control there. 

-Hungary was practically independent of Austria as soon as 
the revolution broke out, and Louis Kossuth, the young editor 
of the gazette at Buda-Pesth, became a leader of the people. 
The Hungarian Reichstag, or national Diet, came out with a 
declaration of rights ; demands for a responsible government 
were made, and there was to be nothing more than a personal 
union between the two kingdoms. 

These disputes between Hungary and Austria were of long 
standing. Hungary wanted merely a personal union, desiring 
to retain full autonomy. The natural result of such a course 
must have been the inevftable dismemberment of the Austrian 



36 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

Empire. Kossuth, elected to the Hungarian Parliament in 1846, 
became the leading spirit in the opposition to Austria. It was 
he who instigated the demand for a new constitution for Hun- 
gary proper in 1848, which, coming in the early days of March, 
hastened the Vienna uprising of the 13th. In August the 
imperial Parliament began to show some signs that the changes 
granted by the emperor would be put into effect. A Hun- 
garian was appointed with Kossuth as minister of finance 
and Archduke Stephen was made the viceroy or palatine of 
the kingdom of Hungary. Hopes for peace in the future were 
entertained, but the policy adopted in Hungary from the 
start soon caused trouble. Croatia, Slavonia, and Transyl- 
vania complained at once that their wishes were disregarded. 
The Magyars applied at Vienna for the union of all three 
provinces under the government of Hungary, while, on the 
other hand, the three provinces themselves put in a petition 
to the same source for the institution of an independent king- 
dom such as that of Hungary. The imperial government 
seeing an opportunity of using one against the other — a policy 
common in the history of this conglomerate nation— ap- 
pointed, as Ban of Croatia, Jellachich, a man who was notori- 
ously hostile to Hungary, and secretly encouraged him to 
proceed against that kingdom at the same time that it openly 
opposed such a movement at the request of the Hungarian 
government. 

Kossuth and Gorgei, the military general, organized a force 
of 200,000 men and opposed Jellachich, but finally, on the 
murder of Lamberg shortly after his appointment to supersede 
Gorgei, the government of Hungary was declared annulled 
by the emperor and Jellachich appointed military director 
of the territory which was set under martial law. Hostilities 
began at once, and forces under Prince Windischgratz for the 
Austrians and Gorgei for the Hungarians met, and the strug- 
gle only ended after the imperial government had called in 
the assistance of Russia. 

The city of Buda-Pesth was taken by the Russians. Kossuth 
was obliged to fiy to Turkey, and Hungary was treated as a 
conquered country. As the emperor had promised certain 
concessions to the kingdom of Hungary, he was obliged to 
resign at the beginning of hostilities in December, 1848. 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 37 

Francis Joseph succeeded to the imperial office. By the fall 
of the year 1849 Hungary was completely conquered. Mean- 
time Austria had been losing prestige in Central Europe, where 
she was endeavoring to gain and hold the leadership of the 
German states. In 1853 troubles broke out again in the south 
and an uprising occurred among the Montenegrins, who 
complained of the rule of the Turks. Austria, siding with 
the former, was in the midst of negotiations with the Porte 
when the war of the Crimea between Russia and Turkey 
opened. Austria joined the allied forces and went through 
the siege of Sevastopol of 1854-55, which checked the advance 
of Russia. The next three years were years of relaxation in 
regard to the severe treatment of Hungary and Italy, but 
neither of these countries looked upon the imperial govern- 
ment with favor, and it was only a year later that Austria's 
treatment of the government of Italy turned first Cavour 
and Sardinia and then Napoleon III. against her. The break 
was hastened by the behavior of Napoleon, who was evidently 
desirous of finding some cause for war. Accordingly, in 1859 
troops began to gather from France and from Austria, and on 
May 20 the battle of Montebello was fought, resulting in the 
defeat of the Austrians. Eleven days later Austria was driven 
back still farther at the battle of Palestro, and on the 4th of 
June the battle of Magenta resulted in their rout. Milan rose 
in rebellion, and Italy began to throw ofi" the Austrian rule. 
The final defeat of the Austrians at Solferino on the 24th of 
June closed the war. Austria was completely beaten and the 
peace of Villafranca, signed the 11th of July, compelled her to 
give up all her possessions in Italy except Marstria, Peschiera, 
and Venetia. Italy became a confederation under the pope. 

The year 1860 saw the great changes in the Austrian consti- 
tution which have caused the present Austro-Hungarian Em- 
pire to rise out of the monarchy of Metternich. The settle- 
ment of boundary questions was by no means made, and in 
1863 Prussia began her diplomatic policy toward Austria, 
which finally led to the separation of the latter from all 
matters concerning the German states, and left Prussia to 
claim and maintain the leadership in Germany. This ques- 
tion first arose over the discussion concerning the succession 
in the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, where it was de- 



38 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

cided that both Austria and Prussia should maintain troops 
for the time in a kind of joint rule. It was not long, how- 
ever, before disagreements arose out of which came the war of 
1866, in which Austria was completely worsted in seven weeks. 

The Austrian Empire, ruled over by an emperor of the 
stituSons. House of Hapsburg, was originally, up to 1806, a government 
over most of the German states, besides the northern part of 
Italy and the territory south of Hungary. In 1806 the gov- 
ernment was not changed, but the nominal title and now 
quite extinct rule of the " king of the Romans " was abrogated 
by the emperor, who then became emperor of Austria. Until 
1866, Austria was a powerful influence in Central Europe, but 
in the latter year the war with Prussia and the defeats sus- 
tained by Austria compelled the government to give up many 
claims and much territory, both in the north and the south. 
Austria had already lost Venetia and Milan and was expelled 
from the German Bund. 

After her defeats in 1859 Austria was compelled to make 
many sacrifices to Hungary, and in 1860-61 Hungary was 
allowed to reinstate her constitution. The Diploma, or 
Ausgleich, which was the compromise finally agreed upon in 
1860, was drawn up by a body of representatives, nominally of 
the whole Austrian Empire, and elected nine years before. It 
provides for two legislative houses composing a Reichsrath. 
The Lower House was to be chosen by the members of the 
provincial legislatures which were restored to the status they . 
had occupied before the Revolution of 1848, including that of 
Hungary before the rearrangement by Kossuth in the same 
year. The Upper House was to consist of archdukes, nobles, 
prelates, etc., and both Houses could initiate measures — this 
being the first time that that power had been introduced into 
Austrian legislatures. The Lower House was to transact all 
the financial, military, and foreign business of the whole 
empire, and when any matter concerning all the provinces 
except Hungary came up for discussion, the Hungarian mem- 
bers were to retire and the others to proceed to a decision. 

This failed, however, as Hungary objected and insisted on 
maintaining its new constitution of 1848. In 1861 an edict 
was issued which gave the emperor authority to throw the 
election of members to the imperial Reichsrath into certain 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 39 

towns and important places in the provinces, if he chose, 
instead of having them appointed by the legislatures. These 
diets were also given the right to initiate bills and discuss 
them with open doors. The trouble with Hungary continued, 
however, and a new demand was made that her territory 
should be again increased by the addition of Transylvania, 
Dalmatia, Croatia, and Slavonia. The last two became a part 
of the kingdom, but the constitutional dispute grew worse 
and worse. The Hungarian members refused to come to the 
meetings of the Reichsrath in Vienna, and their rights, 
parliamentary and municipal, were thereupon denied them. 
This set the country back and increased the already deep 
sense of injury felt in Hungary. In four years it had become 
apparent that with Hungary, an integral part of the empire, 
having no representation, and with the Czechs of Bohemia 
and Moravia in a similar state of non-representation, a parlia- 
ment could not be constitutionally representative that legis- 
lated for the whole empire. Consequently, in 1865 the 
Reichsrath was disbanded by order of the emperor. The 
Austrian constitution dates, therefore, from the patent of 
the emperor, in 1861, of the right to initiate and debate in 
the Reichsrath. 

On the one hand De^k, head of the Hungarian ministry, 
and on the other. Count Beust, prime minister of Austria, 
were both beginning to see the necessity for some compromise 
to prevent the dissolution of the empire. When the war 
with Prussia in 1866 broke out, it brought matters to a crisis. 
Something must be done to weld the empire together or it 
would fall asunder. The constitution of 1860-61 was accord- 
ingly adopted, with the added provision that the different 
provincial governments could enact what laws they desired so 
long as they did not interfere with any law of the United 
Monarchy. This constitution stands to-day, only changed by 
the modifications of 1882. 

In the order of importance and subordination, the imperial 
body known as the Delegations is the highest power, trans- 
acting all financial, foreign, and military affairs for the entire 
monarchy. This body is made up of representatives of (1) the 
Austrian Reichsrath, and (2) the Hungarian Reichstag, the 
former being composed of representatives from (3) the seven- 



40 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOE-LD TO-DAY. 



The Del- 
egations. 



Executive. 



Judiciary. 



teen Austrian diets, and the latter including representatives of 
(4) the Croatian-Slavonian Diet. 

WHOLE EMPIRE. 

The legislative government of the Austrian monarchy as a 
whole rests with the emperor and two bodies of representa- 
tives called the Delegations. The latter are composed of sixty 
members each. One body is made up of twenty members of 
the Austrian Upper House and forty from the Austrian Lower 
House, and the other of twenty members from the Hungarian 
House of Magnates and forty from the House of Representa- 
tives. The two bodies discuss questions separately and report 
to each other their decisions. In case of protracted disagree- 
ment the two meet and vote without discussion. The mem- 
bers of the Delegations are appointed for one year and the two 
bodies meet annually, alternately in Vienna and Buda-Pesth. 
They have the authority to discuss and decide on all matters 
concerning foreign affairs, military and naval affairs, except 
the personnel of the army, finance, commercial affairs, indi- 
rect taxation, coinage, general railway affairs, and defense. 

The emperor is the executive officer, both as emperor and as 
king of Hungary, but he also has large legislative powers 
under the advice and consent of the Delegations primarily, 
and the legislative bodies throughout the empire secondarily. 
He must be a member of the Roman Catholic Church, and 
his title is threefold, being "Emperor of Austria, King of 
Bohemia, and King of Hungary." The crown is hereditary 
in the House of Hapsburg and passes by primogeniture and 
lineal succession to males or, in want of males, to females. 
The emperor has the usual prerogatives in appointing and re- 
ceiving members of the diplomatic corps, commanding of the 
army, etc., and in the administration of the whole empire he 
is assisted by three ministers, one of whom, as president, is 
the prime minister and chancellor. These are the ministers 
of foreign affairs, of war, and of finance. These ministers 
are responsible to the Delegations and are appointed by the 
emperor. 

The highest court of the empire is the Imperial Court 
(Reichsgericht) at Vienna, which decides cases of disagree- 
ment between the courts in different parts of the empire. 
In Austria there is primarily the Supreme Court of Justice 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 41 

and Cassation and the higher Land Courts (Oberlands- 
gerichte) which are courts of appeal for Austria. Under these 
are the provincial and district courts (Landes and Kreis- 
gerichte), including jury courts which try higher criminal 
cases ; and finally the seventy county courts (Bezirksgerichte). 
In Hungary the highest judicial authority is the Royal Court 
(Kurie) which is final authority in matters criminal and civil 
within the kingdom. Then follow Royal Courts of Justice 
for appeals in certain cases. Below these are sixty-five com- 
mon courts, three hundred and eighty-four county and ten jury 
courts. 

The imperial army is regulated by laws that apply to the ^^^ ^. 
whole empire alike. There is primarily the army on a peace Wavy. 
footing. Here the service is three years in the line and seven 
more in the reserves, service beginning at the age of twenty- 
one. There is also an Ersatz, which is a supplementary re- 
serve, and service may be given here for ten years instead of 
as stated above. Besides the regular army there is the Land- 
wehr^ which is not imperial but organized by each portion of 
the empire. It requires a ten years' service after leaving the 
army or the Ersatz, and is only called out occasionally for drill 
or practice in time of peace, but required to serve in war time. ' 
The navy requires a service beginning at the age of twenty- 
one, first for four years in the marines, then five years in the 
reserves, and finally three in a partial service called the 
Seewehr. Finally there is the Landsturm^ which is a service 
beginning at the nineteenth year and running until the 
forty-second year, to which all males between these ages not 
in any other military service belong and in which during war 
they must serve. The army in time of peace is made up as 
follows : 

Infantry 196,233 

Cavalry 58,714 

Artillery 18,569 

Engineers, etc 12,979 

Sanitary 2,689 

Officers 4,116 

Establishments 15,945 

Landwehr 27,472 

Total, peace footing 336,717 

The army in time of war can be increased to a total of 
1,818,413. 



42 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

The navy at present consists of : 

Battle-ships 11 

Cruisers 13 

Torpedo boats..-. 57 

Avisos 3 

River monitors 2 

Station ships , 19 

Training ships 4 

Others 19 

Total 128 

AUSTRIA, 

The Austrian constitution provides for a legislature of two 
houses, which have certain restricted legislative powers given 
them under the acts of 1860 and 1861 and the final decree of 
1882. The duties of the Reichsrath include matters concerning 
the government of Austria proper and the settlement of cer- 
tain disputes between the Austrian provinces. Further, it 
has the authority of consent in all general laws regarding the 
military legislation proposed by the emperor and the Delega- 
tions ; cooperative authority in all commercial legislation on 
matters concerning post and telegraph, railways, banks and 
customs ; and the right of examination in all matters con- 
cerning the budgets of the state, legislation concerning the 
public debt, etc. For the passage of any law the consent of 
the majority of both Houses is required and the signature of 
the emperor. The members of both Houses have the right to 
initiate measures within the province of the Austrian Reichs- 
rath. 

The Upper House is composed of four classes of hereditary 
^aus^' ^^ ^^^® members, there being no elective seats whatsoever. 
They are : (1) Members of the imperial family having estates 
in Austria, in all at present, 20 ; (2) the nobles who hold large 
estates throughout Austria, 66 ; (3) archbishops to the number 
of 10, and bishops to the number of 7 ; (4) life members 
appointed by the emperor for signal services in art, literature, 
or science, or in the military or ecclesiastical service. There 
are 109 in the latter. The Herrenhaus is therefore composed 
at present of 212 members. It meets annually at Vienna in 
conjunction with the Abgeordnetenhaus. The president and 
vice-president are appointed by the emperor. 

The members of the Lower House are elected by limited 
suffrage under the amended law of 1882. There are four sys- 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 



43 



terns of suffrage. In the rural districts one voter is elected 
for each 500 inhabitants by a qualification of citizenship and 
an annual tax payment of five florins. These voters in turn 
elect 131 members to represent the rural districts. The cham- 
bers of trade and commerce return 21 members under a similar 
suffrage law, and the towns 116 members. The fourth class, 
the landed proprietors, paying taxes of from 50 to 250 florins, 
according to the laws of the different provinces, return 85 
members, making in all 353 representatives in the Lower 
House. The House meets annually in conjunction with the 
Herrenhaus, and elections occur once in six years. The 
emperor has the right to dissolve the Abgeordnetenhaus, but 
he is obliged to call a new election within six months. The 
House appoints its own officers. 

The Austrian executive consists of the emperor in person, 
assisted by the eight ministers of finance, interior, public 
worship, agriculture, commerce, national defense, justice, and 
one minister at present without a portfolio. Here, as else- 
where in the government of the whole empire, the emperor is 
the chief executive. 

AUSTRIAN DIETS. 

The Austrian diets are composed of a single house, in each 
case consisting of a different num ber of members, according 
to the size and importance of the province and the population. 
They are composed of members partly elected and partly 
holding office by right of other positions in the church or 
state, and the elective portion holds office for six years. These 
divisions are the archbishops and bishops of the Roman 
Catholic and Greek Churches ; the rectors of all universities, 
all of whom hold their positions by right of office ; and 
representatives elected under a suffrage law similar to that 
employed in the Austrian general elections, representatives 
being sent from landed proprietors, members of the chambers 
of commerce and trade, towns, and rural districts. This 
house meets, with a little variation in each case, annually, and 
has authority in all matters not especially provided for, or 
detailed to, the federal Reichsrath and which come within the 
boundaries of each province, such as matters concerning taxa- 
tion, cultivation of the soil, educational, ecclesiastical, and 
charitable works, the care of highways, etc. In each case the 



Abgeordne- 
tenhaus. 



Executive. 



44 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

emperor appoints the governor of a province and the presi- 
dent and vice-president of tlie diet. In detail, the sixteen 
diets are made up as follows : 



No. of 
Province. Members. 

Bohemia 242 

Galicia 151 

Moravia ; 100 

Lower Austria 72 

Tyrol 68 

Styria 63 

Upper Austria 50 

Dalmatia 43 



No. of 
Province. Members. 

Carinthia '. 37 

Carniola 37 

Istria 33 

Silesia 31 

Bukowina 31 

Salzburg 26 

Gorz and Gradiska 22 

Vorarlberg 21 



The diets are in most cases made np of Germans, Czechs, 
and Slavs, and as each speaks a different language and has 
different national qualities, they necessarily cause parties to 
be formed on these lines. In some diets German is spoken, 
in others Czech, and occasionally both are allowed where 
both nationalities are represented. There is an executive 
body called the Provincial Council in each province, composed 
of the president of the diet and a number of the members 
elected for that purpose. 

HUNGARY. 

Hungary is a kingdom with its constitution dating back 
about a thousand years. It has been modified and disre- 
garded continually, and in 1848 was finally brought into its 
present shape by Kossuth. The emperor of Austria is king 
of Hungary by the constitution of 1861. In 1867 the govern- 
ment and constitution were still more firmly assured by im- 
perial decree. 

The legislative body, or Eeichstag, is divided into two parts, 
the House of Magnates and the House of Representatives. 
They have authority, conjointly, to decide upon all matters 
not particularly given to the imperial Delegations, which 
concern all Hungary, including those matters of moment in 
Transylvania, Croatia, Dalmatia, and Slavonia. These are, 
briefly, all legislation concerning taxation, education, care of 
roads and buildings, religion, agriculture, etc. Both Houses 
are summoned by the king in Buda-Pesth annually, the 
language being Hungarian with the single exception that the 
forty representatives from Croatia are permitted to speak their 
native tongue. 

The Upper House is composed almost entirely of unelective 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 



45 



seats. At present the body consists of 427 members and is 
made up as follows : 20 archdukes ; 286 nobles, who hold 
office under the class of hereditary peers, pay 3,000 florins 
annually as a land tax, and are at least 24 years of age ; 
40 archbishops and bishops of the Roman Catholic and 
Greek Churches ; 11 members who represent the Protestant 
Churches ; 50 life peers, elected in a body by the House itself; 
and, finally, 3 Croatian delegates and 17 members who hold 
seats by virtue of their high position in the state. The 
president and vice-president are appointed by the king from 
among the members, and the House can initiate measures and 
has certain advisory, cooperative, and even final powers. 

The Lower House is composed of 453 members, made up of 
representatives elected by all male citizens twenty years of 
age and paying a small tax on real estate or income. Men in 
scientific or learned and professional work are allowed to vote 
without any property payment. Elections occur once in five 
years and the House meets annually at Buda-Pesth, appoint- 
ing its own president and vice-president. 

The king is the chief executive as well as having legislative 
and judicial powers, and he has to assist him a cabinet or 
council of nine members, who are the heads of the ministries 
of finance, national defense, adlatus (near the king's person), 
interior, education and worship, justice, industry and com- 
merce, agriculture, and the department for Croatia-Slavonia. 

CROATIA. 

The legislative portion of the Croatian government is a 
single Diet of sixty-four members, elected by a suffrage simi- 
lar to that employed in Hungary. This body is presided over 
by a Ban, appointed by the king on the nomination of the 
president of the Hungarian ministry, and he is responsible to 
the Croatian Diet. The Diet itself has legislative and ad- 
ministrative powers in all matters which concern the territory 
that it represents exclusively, and which are not especially 
given to the Hungarian Reichstag, and of course not taken 
by the imperial Delegations. These powers are strictly in- 
ternal and concern worship, education, justice, care of roads, 
etc. Where the matter concerns the other provinces of Hun- 
gary as well, it goes to the Hungarian Reichstag for decision. 

With the closing of the war, Austrian statesmen, with 



House of 
Magnates. 



House of 
Represent- 
atives. 



ExecutiTe, 



46 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WOELD TO-DAY. 

Count Beust at their head, felt that if Austria was to remain 
since 1867. an independent power even within her narrow limits, Hun- 
gary must be welded to the empire and a constitution must be 
adopted to give the people some voice in their government. 
The result of this was that Francis Joseph was crowned king 
of Hungary on the 8th of June, 1867, and a number of amend- 
ments were added to the constitution of 1848, known as the 
Ausgleich, besides provisions for the general government of 
the empire at large. 

By the Ausgleich, as finally arranged in 1867, Hungary be- 
came a more favored part of the empire than the other prov- 
inces, and from this time Bohemia's demands for a similar 
grant from the imperial government began. Beust, Austrian 
minister in 1867, saw at once that some grant must be made to 
Bohemia, and he consequently brought about many liberal 
reforms within that province. Civil marriage was introduced 
and all disputes upon the marriage question from that time 
were to come before civil courts for settlement. The Con- 
cordat with Rome was broken and greater freedom of worship 
was introduced. Trial by jury was restored, and arrange- 
ments concerning finance and the army were changed for the 
better, the national debt being consolidated, and the strength 
of the army raised to a peace footing of 255,000 men. 

The questions arising in the eastern part of Europe from 
this time until the present day cannot be discussed here. It 
is only possible to suggest Austria's part in these difficulties 
that are still unsettled. In 1874 some Montenegrins and 
Turks at Podgoritza came into collision, as they had often done 
before. During the next twelve months five Turks were con- 
demned to death for the murders perpetrated during this riot. 
The Turkish government refused to allow this sentence to be 
carried out, and from this grew the beginnings of a trouble 
that finally ended in war. Bad crops and overtaxation in 
Montenegro, Bosnia, and Herzegovina were another cause 
which led to an uprising and desultory warfare throughout 
these provinces in 1875. To settle the question and prevent 
war on a large scale, the great powers of Europe signed a note 
addressed to the sultan and drawn up bj'- Count Andrassy, 
then prime minister of Austria. This '' Andrassy Note " had 
no results, however, and the powers drifted toward war. 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 47 

Austria in this dispute wished primarily for peace, fearing 
in the case of war that not only the above mentioned 
provinces but Croatia and even Hungary might be drawn into 
it. The old Austrian principle of letting well enough alone 
was the foundation of the present status. Early in July war 
was declared against Turkey by Servia and Montenegro, 
secretly assisted by Russia, Austria still maintaining her 
neutrality. Her position was a difficult one. The Hunga- 
rians favored the Turks because they hated the Slavs in 
Turkey and elsewhere. They sided with Turkey, therefore, 
and decided to join the Turks against the Servians. In 
Austria proper the sympathy was strong with the Christians 
on the Balkan Peninsula and a division of feeling that boded 
no good was evident in the empire. After some unsuccessful 
attempts at peace every one prepared for war, and towards the 
end of 1876 Russia and Turkey, concealing their identity 
behind the smaller provinces of the Balkan Peninsula, were 
ready to begin the fight. There was a conference at Constan- 
tinople in December, but the Porte refused to accept its 
proposals and only promised a constitution to the provinces, 
which meant nothing. Thereupon Russia declared war 
against Turkey in the middle of April, 1877. In early July 
the Russians crossed the Danube into Roumania and won 
victories one after another until, on the 10th of December, 
Plevna fell and the Turkish ai^my was dispersed. Russia now 
had a clear road to Adrianoj^le and Constantinople. 

During this time, the Austrian government had discovered 
a plot in Hungary to join the war, attack the Russians in the 
rear, and aid the Turks. Demonstrations in Hungary in 
favor of the Turks were answered in Austria by counter dem- 
onstrations in favor of the Russians. Finally, at the insti- 
gation of the sultan, peace was brought about at San Stefano 
on March 8, 1878. Austria and England, however, denied the 
validity of the treaty and demanded a congress of the Euro- 
pean powers to settle the questions of boundary. This was 
refused by Russia, and every one a,gain prepared for war, until 
hostilities were averted by a secret treaty between Russia and 
England, signed on the 30th of May and agreeing on a division 
of Roumania. For the settlement of all questions involved, 
a conference was held at Berlin, July 13, 1878. Austria got 



48 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

Herzegovina and Bosnia for maintaining her neutrality dur- 
ing ttie long struggle. It was naturally to her interest to 
gain control of these two provinces where there were strong 
inclinations towards a union with Servia to form an inde- 
pendent Slav monarchy. She could thus prevent a union 
which would have endangered the security of the bordering 
Austrian provinces. 

On the 31st of July, 1878, Austrian forces were sent across 
the frontier to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina. Difficulties 
arose on all hands, unexpectedly, it seems, as there was no 
such opposition foreseen, and it was October before the 
provinces were finally under Austrian control. The great 
advantage of the possession of the two provinces is the de- 
fense of the southern border of the Austrian Empire, the 
easy road it opens into Dalmatia, as well as to Constantinople, 
and, above all, the road to the sea-coast. 

Theoretically, Turkey holds the sovereignty of the provinces, 
but in point of fact Austria, having the execution of that 
control, is the ruling power. Austrian railroads have been 
built and compulsory military service was enforced in 1881. 

Following the occupation came the struggles in 1885 be- 
tween Servia and the combined forces of Bulgaria and Kou- 
melia, which were finally settled by the interposition of 
Austria ; and when in 1888 there seemed to be some danger of 
another occupation by Russia, the secret treaty of 1879 be- 
tween Germany and Austria was made public, by which it 
appeared that they (and later Italy) had agreed to maintain 
the status quo of the Berlin treaty. This second Triple Alli- 
ance has become a source of interest to the student since its 
public formation. It is still a very strong power in maintain- 
ing the peace of Europe. It was through this forced annexa- 
tion that the strong ministry of Auersperg was compelled to 
resign and the Taaffe ministry entered upon its office. 

Count Taaffe's ministry had difficulty all along in holding 
a majority, but in 1892-93 it became still less powerful in the 
Parliament owing to radical measures introduced somewhat 
unexpectedly. At the end of 1892 Taaflfe tried to get a 
majority by propitiating the three great parties, the German 
Liberals, the Poles, and the German Clericals, or Conserva- 
tives. He, however, estranged them all by introducing in 



AUSTEIA-HUNGAEY. 49 

October, 1893, a bill granting almost universal manhood suf- 
frage in Austria. Such a thing had never been considered 
in Austria before, and a tumult arose in the Chamber of Dep- 
uties. To avoid a crisis Count Taaffe resigned on October 29, 
and Prince Windischgratz was summoned to take his place. 
A so-called coalition ministry was formed which has had little 
but labor troubles to cope with. Universal suffragists are con- 
stantly gaining strength. 

The difficulty in the government of Bohemia has been and 
always will be that different races, speaking different Ian- Bohemia, 
guages and inheriting different traditions, are drawn together 
under a common government to which they can never be 
brought to agree. The Young German party looks towards 
Germany as the proper government ; the Young Czechs are 
ultra-nationalists, and the Old Czechs are allied with the 
Ultramontanes and conservative parties in Austria. When 
Count Taaffe came into office he soon hit upon an oppor- 
tunity for compromise, and the Old Czechs were persuaded to 
join the Moderate Germans to the exclusion of the other two 
extreme parties, the Ultramontanes and the Young Czechs. 
To this end an Ausgleich was drawn up at the congress held 
in Vienna in 1890. A portion of this has passed the legislature 
in Bohemia and been signed by the king, though a vote on all 
the clauses could not be maintained. 

The Ausgleich offered the following proposals : (1) The 
division of the schools in Bohemia into German and Czech 
educational systems, including schools for the one or the other 
party. Where there is a minority of forty families of five years' 
residence which recommends or demands it, that district is to 
have a school also. (2) The agricultural school committees, 
which have charge of all agricultural schools and societies, are 
to be divided into two independent bodies, German and Czech. 
(3) The division of the Supreme Court is to be made in two 
national sections. (4) The management of the electoral, the 
administrative, and judicial districts are to be such that the 
differences of language may not interfere ; that is, Germans 
try Germans, and Czechs, Czechs, and each elect representa- 
tives from their own nationality. (5) The organization of the 
government officials is arranged in such a manner that they 
shall not be required to speak both languages as heretofore. 



50 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

In some cases they are obliged only to know the language that 
is most prevalent in their district. (6) The division of the 
Diet into two national bodies is provided for, so that both 
parties shall vote on a question and a majority of both be re- 
quired before the bill becomes a law. 

This Ausgleich is an attempt to give to each nationality a 
fair and proportionate representation and authority in the 
government, and to give the minority such rights as properly 
belong to it. 

Within the last year or two Bohemia has been the scene of 
much political disorder owing to this question of the two 
nationalities. In 1893, while the details of the Ausgleich were 
still being discussed, the Young Czechs seized the opportunity 
to begin a crusade against the German element in Bohemia, 
They proposed that Moravia and Silesia should become 
integral parts of Bohemia, and as the majority of the popula- 
tion in these provinces is Czechs, this would have given the 
Czechs large majorities in the Bohemian Diet. This party of 
Young Czechs has gained over the Old Czechs to its side. 
The former with this added strength grew bold enough in 
May, 1893, to try to count out a vote in the Diet on the general 
passage of the Ausgleich. This being unsuccessful they made 
such a disturbance that the emperor promptly closed the 
Diet. Riots followed and Prague was in a great state of ex- 
citement, until finally, in September, the holding of mass 
meetings, the freedom of the press, and, in certain cases, trial 
by jury were abolished. 

The country is quieter at present and has been during 1894, 
but the warfare of the two races is as strong as ever, and it 
only awaits a favorable opportunity to break forth again with 
renewed vigor. 

At the same time, the heated discussions regarding the 
question of civil marriage are still rampant in Bohemia, 
though in Hungary a civil marriage bill was finally carried 
through the Upper House on June 21 and 22, 1894. 

The bill caused a great deal of excitement during its passage 
through the two Houses of the Diet. It passed the Lower 
House by a large majority in April. On May 10, however, the 
Upper House at once rejected it, the majority being due to the 
representatives of the clergy and the aristocracy. The gov- 



AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 51 

ernment did not resign as the majority was so small — 25 out 
of a total vote of 450. On May 21 the bill again passed the 
Lower House, and knowing that it would not pass the other 
House, the Hungarian ministry resigned. They were per- 
suaded to return after much discussion and popular excite- 
ment, and they finally worked on the Upper Chamber so 
strongly that they passed the bill by a majority of four votes, 
part on the 21st, part on the 22d of June. In both Bohemia 
and Hungary there is no doubt that the body of the people 
wish for the requirement of civil authority in all marriages, 
of whatever church. The opposition comes from the clergy 
and the nobility, and has been suflScient until very recent 
dates to keep any bill from passing. 



BELGIUM. 



King, 



Leopold II. 



RULERS SINCE 1800. 

House Of Austria until 1815 

William I. of the Netherlands 1815-1831 

Leopold 1 1881-1865 

Leopold II 1865- 

MINISTRY. 

Minister of Finance A. Beernaert [Pres.] 

Minister of Justice ^ J. Lejeune 

Minister of Interior and Instruction J. de Burlet 

Minister of War General J. J. Brassine 

Minister of Railroads, Post, and Telegraph, J. H. P. Van den Peereboom 

Minister of Foreign Affairs Count de Merode-Westerloo 

Minister of Agriculture, Industry, and Public Works L. de Bruyn 



TABLE OF STATISTICS. 



Province. 



Antwerp 

Brabant 

West Flanders 
East Flanders, 

Hainaut 

Li6ge 

Limburg 

Luxemburg.... 
Namur 

Total 



Area. 


Population. 


1,093 


699,571 


1,268 


1,128,728 


1,249 


746,923 


1,158 


958,752 


1,437 


1,068,815 


1,117 


762,196 


931 


224,604 


1,706 


216,380 


1,414 


341,072 



11,373 



6,147,041 



sz 



BELGIUM. 



The kingdom of Belgium is a constitutional monarchy, 
situated in the northern central part of Europe. It is bounded 
on the north by Holland and by the North Sea, on the east 
by Holland, Germany, and Luxemburg, and by France on 
the south and west. The situation of the kingdom of Bel- 
gium is of great importance in maintaining the " balance of 
power " in Europe, and it is for this reason that in 1839 it was 
by treaty of the great powers declared' forever neutral. Brus- 
sels is the capital with a population of 477,398. 

When the Congress of Vienna partitioned off Europe to 
suit itself, it decided to Vwiortii^- 



annex the territory of 
Belgium to that of 
Holland and call it all 
the Netherlands. It 
was a most unfortu- 
nate union, as the his- 
tory of the next twenty 
years only too clearly 
shows. For Holland 
and Belgium had 
nothing in common, 
the former being Cal- 
vinistic in religious 




faith and the latter the center of Catholicism in the north of 
Europe ; and the language and customs of each were as 
widely separated as their religion. Besides this, Holland, 
though it had only two thirds the population of Belgium, was 
given a majority in the assemblies, and in 1830, for example, 
out of seven ministers in the cabinet Belgium was represented 
by but one. The appointments in most of the political de- 
partments were given to the Dutch. 

53 



History 
since 1815. 



54 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

In the first years after 1815, the Liberal element in Belgian 
politics saw in this union with a Protestant state an oppor- 
tunity for freeing their country from the rule of the Catholics, 
and they joined the king in a plan for raising the standard of 
education and for placing it under the control of the state. 
The University of Louvain w^as transformed into a college for 
the study of philosophy and the liberal arts, and all who in- 
tended to join the Catholic clergy were compelled to take a 
degree at this university before they were pernaitted to begin 
their religious studies. This turned the Catholic element 
against the government. It was not long before the Liberals 
also turned against the foreign rule, when they discovered 
that the right of free speech, trial by jury, and freedom of the 
press were being curtailed. The result was a combination be- 
tween the Ultramontanes and the Liberals and the creation of 
a strong Opposition, comprising the bulk of the Belgian 
population. Weighted as they were with a portion of the 
Dutch debt, the Belgians, toward the year 1830, began to 
openly propose separation from Holland. Arrests and im- 
prisonment for outspoken charges against the government 
provoked still more comment, and w^hen in 1829 the king 
issued a message asserting his authority in Belgium, riots 
occurred in Brussels and throughout the country. Demands 
for the abolition of the University of Louvain, for absolute 
freedom of the press, and a form of legislative and adminis- 
trative government for Belgium, came from all sides. The 
country was in this state when the Revolution of 1830 broke 
out in Paris. On receipt of the news, the riots increased 
and Brussels was loud in its demand for the retirement of Van 
Maanten, the minister of justice. He had incurred the dislike 
of both parties by his policy, and through the influence of a 
revolutionist named De Potter the complaints of the Catholics 
were centered on him. 

The riots spread into revolt and extended over the entire 
country. Belgium w-as aroused to assert its independence, 
and on his side the king was driven to the use of force to 
suppress the revolt. The Prince of Orange, who had been 
sent to Brussels to examine into the state of affairs, found 
that the only satisfactory settlement of the question lay in 
the grant of a separate legislative and administrative body to 



BELGIUM. 55 

the Belgians; but the king refused to bring tliis about, and 
by tlie ntli of September a Committee of Safety had been 
formed at Brussels to maintain tlie integrity of Belgium. 
While this body was in session, the people of the city gained 
control of the streets and the country was practically in the 
hands of the mob. A national convention was thereupon 
called and it is to the wise deliberations of this assembly that 
the Belgians owe their present constitution. After the revo- 
lution had spread over the country the king granted the right 
of an assembly with the required powers, but this came too late 
— the cry was for absolute separation now. A convention in 
London toward the end of 1830 attempted to make a settle- 
ment of the question, but it was not until the end of April of 
the following year that Belgium settled it herself by deciding 
on an hereditary, constitutional monarchy and by offering 
the crown to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg after it had been 
refused by the son of Louis PhiliiDpe. The new king took the 
title of Leopold I. A Dutch Invasion was repulsed, France 
having come to the king's rescue with an army, and the in- 
tegrity of the kingdom was established. It was not until 1838, 
however, that a treaty was arranged by which Luxemburg 
was to be divided between Belgium and Holland, and the neu- 
trality of Belgium was guaranteed by the great powers. 

In 1839 Holland finally accepted all the articles of the 
treaty, receiving a part of Limburg for what she gave up in 
Luxemburg. 

The union of Liberals and Catholics had accomplished the 
independence of Belgium. Their subsequent separation threw 
the new kingdom into disturbances that are by no means set- 
tled at the present day. The great majority of the population 
of Belgium is Catholic and, gradually, from 1840 on, the ad- 
vanced liberal acts of the government irritated the Conserva- 
tive Catholics, until a somewhat Conservative ministry came 
in in 1842, which resigned in 1847 to the Liberals again. They 
in their turn retired in favor of a Conservative majority in 
1852. The separation of the Liberal and Ultramontane 
parties went on increasing, and violent discussions with not 
infrequent outbreaks occurred from 1855 to 1864, when a strong 
Liberal ministry again entered upon office. The questions 
under dispute were the control of education, of marriage, 



56 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

etc., throughout the kingdom, for though the Catholics had 
controlled education from time immemorial, the Liberals, 
beginning under the Dutch rule, had 'striven to place the 
schools beyond Catholic influence. This constant dispute, 
which from 1861 became complicated with labor strikes and 
socialistic organizations, has made Belgium the theater of 
educational and labor discussions, conventions, associations, 
etc., which have furnished in recent years invaluable reports 
on these great questions of the day, though they have brought 
little else of benefit to Belgium itself. 

King Leopold died in 1865 and was succeeded by his son, 
Leopold II. 

In the war of 1870 between Prussia and France, England 
issued an ultimatum, that she would join forces against either 
side that first broke the treaty of 1839, which made Belgian 
territory forever neutral. This stand had much to do with 
saving Belgium from, one or the other of the participants in 
the war. 

At the beginning of the war a Liberal ministry of long 
duration fell before the IJltramontanes and Radicals combined. 

The assembly called together in 1830 to form a constitution 
tution. did its work so well that with few exceptions the articles of 
the constitution remain as they were then drawn up. The 
monarchy is constitutional, representative, and hereditary; and 
theoretically the government is by the people through their 
representatives elected by themselves. The rights of indi- 
viduals and the possession of private property are insured 
forever, and all religious faiths are equal before the law. 

The legislative portion of the government is vested in a 
Legis- Senate and a House of Representatives, and the members of 
both are elected by the people. Members of both Houses are 
free from arrest during term-time and they represent the 
country at large, not the districts from which they are 
returned. They receive no salary. Both Chambers meet 
annually and sit for forty days at least, reports of the pro- 
ceedings being published. The Chamber of Representatives 
is composed at present of one hundred and thirty-eight mem- 
bers. They are elected by a manhood suffrage which requires 
that an elector pay an annual tax of forty francs, one repre- 
sentative being returned for every 40,000 inhabitants. Mem- 



BELGIUM. 



57 



bers are required to be natural born or naturalized Belgians, 
to live in the kingdom, and to be twenty-one years of age. 
The House has the sole right of initiating measures relating 
to money matters and to the personnel of the army. The 
regular term of office is four years, but half the members re- 
tire every two years, except in the case of a general election 
brought about by a dissolution. 

The Senate is composed of half as many members as the 
House, and they are chosen for terms of eight years. Half 
their number retire every four years, except, as in the case of 
the Chamber, when a dissolution occurs. To become a senator 
a candidate must be forty years of age and pay a tax of at 
least 2,116 francs. 

The king is the chief executive of the government, but as he 
is not subject to the changes of parties, every act of his has to Executive 
be countersigned by one of the ministers, and in case of 
strong opposition in the country, the latter is held responsible 
and must retire. The king is commander-in-chief of the 
army, and he convokes and prorogues the Parliament. He 
credits and receives foreign emissaries, and has other powers 
that require the consent of the legislature. The person of the 
king is sacred and the succession is provided for by direct 
male primogeniture. The executive is assisted by seven 
ministers, who constitute a cabinet and are responsible to the 
legislature. They have the right of entry into the Chambers, 
but no vote. There is also a privy council connected with the 
executive department. 

There is a Court of Cassation at Brussels, which is the highest 
legal authority in the kingdom. Besides this there are three 
courts of appeal and three of assizes, the judges in every case 
being appointed by the king. There are besides two hundred 
and sixteen courts in the cantons. Trial by jury in criminal 
and political cases is an integral part of the constitution. 

Religion is free to all, but the Catholic Church includes a 
large majority of the inhabitants. Education is compulsory 
in the primary schools and there are four universities, those 
at Brussels, Ghent, Li6ge, and Louvain. Each commune is 
obliged to maintain a portion of the expense of a school. 

For a monarchy the local government of Belgium is very 
powerful. There are provincial and communal councils. 



Judiciary. 



Local gov- 
ernment. 



58 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY 



History 

since 1870. 

Kultur- 

kampf. 



Labor 
questions. 



merabers of the former being elected for four years and re- 
tiring lialf every two years, and those of tlie latter being 
elected for six years and retiring half every three. Each 
council has authority in its own province in local matters, 
including local finance. 

At the beginning of the war the moderate Conservative 
ministry of Malou entered upon office and maintained itself 
until 1878. The movement toward secularization of educa- 
tion, which had been gaining ground in France, spread into 
Belgium in the years immediately preceding 1878 and was the 
cause of the overthrow of the ministry in the latter year. 
Frfere-Orban, an ardent Liberal, was made the head of the 
new Liberal ministry, and one of the first acts of the new 
government was to bring forward an educational bill creating 
a minister of education and taking the control of the schools 
out of the hands of the Catholics. The bill became a law in 
1879 and aroused the greatest opposition among the Catholics 
all over the country. Diplomatic relations with the Holy See 
were broken off in 1880 and the fight continued until in 1884, 
owing partly to the large deficits in the budget, but chiefiy to 
the energetic work of the Catholics, an Ultramontane ma- 
jority was returned in both the Chambers. Malou reentered 
upon office only to resign in the same year on account of riots, 
mass meetings, and monster petitions raised against the 
reversal of the Frfere-Orban educational system. M. Beer- 
naert was made the premier. Up to 1886 the educational 
legislation was the all-important question, but then labor 
troubles began to claim the attention of the entire country. 

Before 1886 there was no organized labor party or any 
socialistic organization of prominence. In March of that 
year, in the city of Li6ge, a mass meeting of miners was held 
to demand more wages. Riots and a series of fights between 
the troops and the miners occurred, and in April they de- 
veloped into an organized strike. Twelve hundred troops 
were required to suppress the rising revolt. A "Royal Com- 
mission was thereupon appointed to examine into the state 
of labor, and its report showed the justice of many of the 
workingmen's demands. But it was not until 1889, after two 
years more of trouble, that bills were passed exempting 
certain laborers' houses from taxation, improving the dwell- 



BELGIUM. 59 

ings, and organizing savings banks and banks for issuing 
loans. The socialistic troubles continued, however, though in 
less lawless fashion. De Fuisseaux, a socialist, was tried in 
1889 for the publication of a pamphlet called "The People's 
Catechism," but he was acquitted and the ministry nearly fell 
for maintaining the charges against him, since it appeared 
during the trial that the government had secretly given him 
encouragement in order to gain popular support for an anti- 
socialist law. Through 1890 and 1891 the growth of the 
socialistic party was marked. Demands were frequently made 
for universal suffrage, absolute freedom of the press, etc. 

In 1893 the combination of socialistic theory and electoral 
reform agitation brought on a series of riots. These began in 
February, when permission was given to the people in and 
about Brussels to make a trial of the Referendum in force in 
the Swiss Republic. The result was that the people voted in 
favor of universal suffrage. The success of the trial was some- 
what surprising to the government. Measures were brought 
in at once, some favoring suffrage for those over twenty-five 
years of age having certain incomes, others for those who were 
merely twenty -five years of age. These were all voted down, 
and at this rioting began, with the result that on April 18, 1893, 
a bill suggested by one Nyssens was carried, giving universal 
suffrage to the country and the plural vote ; that is, all males 
over twenty-one years of age having resided a year in the 
voting place can vote. Those of certain ages, incomes, and 
education also have a second vote. 



BOLIVIA. 



President, 



M. Baptista. 



MINISTRY. 

Minister of Foreign Relations E. Cano 

Minister of Finance E. Guerra 

Minister of War Severo F. Alonzo 

Minister of the Interior L. Paz 

Minister of Justice and Worship E. Tovar 



TABLE OF STATISTICS. 



Department, 


Area. 


Population. 


Capital. 


Chuquisaca 


72,796 

44,552 

55,400 

86,810 

25,640 

140,180 

112,545 

295,631 


360,680 
642,650 
300,000 
450,300 
170,000 
200,500 
140,560 
68,650 


Sucre. 


La Paz 


La Paz. 


Potosi 


Potosi. 


Cochabamba 


Cochabamba. 


Oruro 


Oruro. 


Santa Cruz 


Santa Cruz. 


Tarija 


Tarija. 


Beni 


Trinidad. 






Total 


783,554 


2,333,340 





60 



BOLIVIA. 



The republic of Bolivia is situated in the central part of 
South America, and is bounded on the north and east by- 
Brazil, on the south by Paraguay, the Argentine Republic, and 
Chile, and on the west by Chile and Peru. Sucre is the capi- 
tal with a population of 17,098. 

The constitution in force to-day was adopted in 1880, though 
it is still practically the same as the one drawn up by Simon 
Bolivar in 1826 and amended in 1840. It is founded on that 
of the United States. 

There is a legislature of two houses, a Senate and a House 
of Representatives, of which the former is composed of sixty- 
six members elected by direct vote of the people, and the 
latter of two members elected by each of the departments, also 
by vote oT the people. Each senator and deputy receives |200 
a month during the term, which extends over three months 
from the 6th of August. 

T he president is the executive officer and he is assisted by a 
cabinet of five ministers. His term of office is four years and 
he is not eligible for reelection at once. There are two vice- 
presidents, whose duty it is to supersede the president in case 
of the latter's incapacity. 

There is a Supreme Court at Sucre, the capital, and superior 
courts in each of the eight districts into which the country is 
divided. The regular military force is composed of 2,000 men, 
but the National Guard, which is a well-organized militia, 
includes some 20,000 men. The Catholic faith is the popular 
religion, but other creeds have a reasonable toleration from 
the government. Education is represented by four hundred 
and sixty schools, nineteen colleges, and four universities. 

The country now occupied by the republic of Bolivia was in 
the last century a part of the land of the Incas, which was all 
the province of Spain. Buenos Ayres first threw off the yoke 

61 



Consti- 
tution. 



Legis- 
lature. 



Executive, 



Judiciary, 
etc. 



Sketch of 
history. 



62 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

of Spain in 1809, and the years that followed until 1825 were 
filled with an almost uninterrupted series of wars for inde- 
pendence on the part of Peru. The contests during these 
years between the Upper Peruvian patriots, sometimes united 
with their weaker brethren in Peru, against the Spanish 
armies were of the fiercest kind, but they ended in victory 
for the people under the leadership of General Sucre, and 
Upper Peru was made into an independent republic under the 
name of Bolivia. The first assembly was held on October 6, 
1825, and a congress was called for May of the next year to 
adopt the constitution drawn up by Simon Bolivar for the 
new republic. This, though altered since then in many de- 
tails, remains to-day the same in its general characteristics. 
General Sucre was elected the first president. 

From this time until 1870 the country has been retarded in 
its growth by two causes. Hardly two years elapsed under 
one administration before a revolt of the Opposition seized the 
control of the government, maintained it for some time, 
and was in its turn overthrown. On the other hand, there 
have been several uprisings in both Peru and Bolivia, which, 
resulting in the ascendency of one man over both republics, 
have caused the interference of Chile to maintain the balance 
of power among the three. In 1836 Santa Cruz, the presi- 
dent of Bolivia, gained control of the government of Peru, 
and the result was a war with Chile that lasted three years. 
In 1841 Peru overcame Bolivia and Chile again interfered. 

Changes of administration occurred in Bolivia in 1848, 1855, 
1858, and 1861 — all due to the restless spirit and fickleness of 
the inhabitants. These continually occurring interruptions 
retarded the commercial growth of Bolivia materially, but in 
1862 the government signed commercial treaties with the 
United States and with Belgium. Finally, the boundary 
question with Chile on the border of Atacama was defined in 
1866 as running along the 24th° of latitude ; and when in 1871 
Morales was elected president the republic began to advance 
agriculturally and commercially to a limited extent. 

The war between Peru and Chile* in 1881 ended in 1883, and 
resulted in a treaty which gave to Chile the territory of 



* For a statement of this war see Chile. 



BOLIVIA. 63 

Atacama and the only seaport town that Bolivia possessed. 
Since then, therefore, the republic has been a landlocked 
country. This territory on the coast between Peru and Chile 
was found in 1866 to contain valuable deposits of guano, and 
from that time on it became the desire of the Chilean govern- 
ment to gain possession of it. 

Bolivia has had a material growth during the last decade in 
agriculture, and the increasing demand for means of trans- 
portation has produced many attempts to improve the road 
to the sea over the Eio de la Plata. This in itself has resulted 
in a general stimulus to trade. It is probable that the future 
road of Bolivia to the ocean will be down the Plata or by rail- 
road along the course of this river. 



President, 



BRAZIL. 



De. Prudente de Moraes. 



RULERS SINCE 1800. 



Colony of Portugal to 1807 

Royal family of Portugal in Brazil ,....1807-1821 

National Congress 1821-1822 

Dom Pedro I., king 1822-1831 

Doni Pedro II., king. 1831-1889 

Deodoro da Fonseca, president 1889-1891 

Gen. Floriano Peixotto 1891- 

TABLE OF STATISTICS. 



States. 



Aniazonas 

Para 

Maranhao 

Piauhy 

Ceara 

Rio Grande do Norte 

Parahyba 

Pernambuco 

Alagoas 

Sergipe 

Bahia 

Espirito Santo 

Rio de Janeiro 

City of Rio 

Santa Catharina 

Rio Grande do Sul 

Minas-Geraes 

Matto-Grosso 

Goyaz 

Parana 

Sao Paulo 

Total 



Area. 



732,460 

443,653 

177,566 

116,218 

40,253 

22,195 

28,854 

49,625 

22,583 

7,370 

164,649 

37,312 

26,634 

538 

27,436 

91,335 

222,160 

532,708 

288,546 

85,453 

112,330 



3,229,878 



J^opu- 
lation. 



80,654 
407,350 
488,443 
266,933 
952,625 
308,852 
496,618 

1,110,831 
459,371 
232,640 

1,821,089 
121,562 

1,164,568 
406,958 
236,346 
564,527 

3,018,807 

79,750 

211,721 

187,548 

1,386,242 



14,023,435 



Capital. 



Manaos. 

Para. 

San LiUiS. 

Therezina. 

Fortaleza. 

Natal. 

Parahyba. 

Recife. 

Maceio. 

Aracaju. 

San Salvador. 

Victoria. 

Rio. 

Desterro. 
Porto Alegre. 
Ouro Preto. 
Cuyaba. 
Goyaz, 
Curitiba. 
Sao Paulo. 



H. 

ofD. 



2 
7 
7 
4 

10 
4 
5 

17 
6 
4 

22 
2 

17 

10 
4 

16 

37 
2 
8 
4 

22 



205 



Sen, 



63 



64 



BRAZIL. 



"a 



Brazil is in the uorthern part of South America, bounded 
on the north by Colombia, Venezuela, the British, Dutch, 
and French Guianas, and the Atlantic Ocean, on the east by 
the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by Uruguay and Paraguay, 
on the west by Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia. It 
is a republic of twenty-one states, with a central government 
under a president 
and a constitution. 
The capital is Rio 
de Janeiro with a 
population of 406,- 
958. 

Brazil was a col- 
ony of Portugal 
from 1500 until in 
1807 King John of 
Portugal fled from 
the Old World and 
became first the 
ruler, and then, in 
1815, king of Brazil. 
During the early 
part of the century, 
the different parts 
of the country were 
not in communi- 
cation with each 
other, owing to the 
lack of means of 
transportation. In 
the south, Uruguay 
and Buenos Ayres were in continual warfare with the kingdom 
over boundary questions. This resulted first in the absorption 

65 




History 
since i8oo. 



66 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

by Brazil of the two countries, and finally in their separation. 
In 1821 King John was recalled to Portugal by a resolution of 
the Portuguese Cortes, and his eldest son was left as regent. 
In a year Pedro had become the active ruler and declared the 
independence of Brazil from the crown of Portugal. A con- 
stitution was adopted in 1824 which lasted with few changes 
until the bloodless revolution of 1889. The independence of 
the country was recognized by Portugal in the year following 
the adoption of the constitution. In 1826 -the first Brazilian 
Parliament assembled, but the disputes, almost unavoidable in 
so new a body, grew to ungovernable proportions at once. 
The opposition to the government steadily increased until 
the king abdicated in 1831 in favor of his son, hoping by this 
to change the sentiment and quiet the country. Pedro II. 
was but five years old at the time, and it was not until 1840 
that he began his reign, which lasted until November 15, 
1889. There were many internal and external uprisings 
during the period of the regency, but in 1848 a revolution that 
was with difficulty suppressed ended the internal strife. 
From that time Brazil has grown in commercial importance. 
The slave trade was abolished in 1850, and with the rapidly 
increasing improvements in interstate communication and in- 
creased immigration commerce developed at an unparalleled 
rate. Hostilities abroad, however, continued from time to 
time, and culminated a few years after the abolition of the 
slave trade in the attempt of Lopez, dictator of Paraguay, to 
close the La Plata River to all navigation. A fierce war was 
at once opened which raged until Lopez and his men at the 
battle of Campo Grande, August 16, 1869, were annihilated. 
Paraguay was nearly ruined and Brazil added 1315,000,000 to 
her debt. Since then the commercial growth has been very 
rapid. The arts and sciences, educational institutions, and all 
the adjuncts of advanced civilization have greatly increased 
within the last fifteen years. 
The formation of the republic in 1890 made the preparation 
Consti- of a constitution necessary, and one of the earliest acts of 
the republican government was the appointment of a national 
congress to draw up and adopt a constitution. This body 
finished its work February 24, 1891. The result of its labor 
is a constitution founded largely on that of the United States. 



BRAZIL. 67 

It is, however, slightly less centralized ; the states have some- 
what more authority in respect to federal government than in 
the latter country. The federal government has authority to 
repel invasion, maintain order, and to execute the decrees of 
Congress. It has power in the matter of duties, post, and 
telegraph, except in particular cases, establishing banks, and 
maintaining custom-houses. The states have certain rights 
in establishing telegraph lines within their precincts, as well 
as stamp duties, etc. The states, however, cannot legislate 
against one another, nor can the federal government legislate 
to the advantage of one or more states and the disadvantage 
of others. It has the estimating and adoption of an annual 
budget, the charge of the public debt, collection and dispo- 
sition of revenue, charge of commerce, river navigation, the 
adoption of a system of weights and measures, and the de- 
claring of war and peace. All matters of foreign relations, 
treaties, questions of boundary and the frontiers, come within 
its jurisdiction also, and all civil, criminal, and legal codes for 
the government of the country. It prorogues and adjourns 
its own sittings and makes and annuls the laws of the country. 

The legislative portion of the government is carried on by a 
Senate and a Chamber of Deputies, with the final sanction of J"\^^' 
the president. Congress meets on the 3d of May in each 
year and the session lasts four months. Both Chambers sit 
with open doors unless otherwise voted on special occasions. 
Each House elects its own officers and members of both are 
exempt from arrest while in office, unless taken in the act of 
crime. Members of both Houses receive an equal stipend for 
services and the amount is decided upon at the beginning of 
each year. 

Members of the Chamber are elected at the rate of one for 
every 70,000 inhabitants by universal manhood suffrage. The 
Chamber has the initiative in bills for taxation and supplies, 
! in the determination of the size of the army and navy, and 
'where charges are brought against the president or the min- 
isters of state. There are at present 205 members in the Cham- 
ber of Deputies. 

Three senators are appointed by the government of each 
state and three by the electoral college in the district. They 
serve nine years, one third going out every three years. The 



68 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



Executive . 



Judiciary. 



Adminis- 
tration. 



vice-president of the republic is ex-qfficio president of the 
Senate. The Senate alone has power to try and sentence the 
president of the republic and the ministers of state, and when 
sitting as such a court the president of the Supreme Court is 
the presiding officer. Bills, with the exceptions mentioned, 
originate in either House, being sent immediately to the other 
upon receiving the required majority vote, and finally coming 
before the president for signature. 

The president is the executive officer. He is elected by an 
absolute majority of voters and by direct suffrage. He holds 
office for four years, not being eligible for reelection immedi- 
ately. It is his duty to see to the execution of laws passed by 
both Houses and he must sign all bills before they can become 
laws. A two thirds vote of both Houses overrides his veto. 

Neither the president nor the vice-president, who holds the 
executive office in case of the president's death, is allowed to 
leave the national territory during term of office without the 
consent of Congress. The president has authority, curtailed 
somewhat by Congress, to declare war and to make peace, 
appoint or discharge government officials, direct the military 
and naval forces, credit and receive foreign emissaries, etc. 
He can be brought to trial for crimes against the freedom and 
the political rights of the country, against the constitution, or 
the security and purity of the nation and the national funds. 

There is a Supreme Court at Rio de Janeiro composed of fif- 
teen of the oldest and most tried citizens, who are appointed by 
the president with the approval of the Senate. They hold 
office for life. There are to be inferior courts created by the 
Senate to meet the demand throughout the country. The 
duties of the Supreme Court are : the trying of the president 
and high officials in conjunction with the Senate ; the settle- 
ment of cases between the states of the republic, or between 
states and the federal government ; decision in appealed cases 
from lower courts ; constitutional questions of interpretation, 
etc. ; matters involving international or maritime law ; and 
all political crimes. State courts are final in their own par- 
ticular spheres except in cases involving habeas corpus rights 
and where foreigners are concerned. 

The president is assisted by a cabinet of ministers appointed 
by himself. They are divided into heads of departments for 



BRAZIL. 69 

foreign relations, war, finance, interior, justice, navy, and 
agriculture. They cannot hold any other office and are not 
allowed in either house of Congress. They are not responsible 
to Congress for any advice given the president. 

Service in the army is obligatory and the control of army ^^^ ^^^ 
and navy rests with Congress and the president. The army Navy, 
was reorganized in February, 1890. At that time it consisted of 
a peace footing of 15,869 men and a war footing of 29,617 men. 

The navy is composed of eleven torpedo boats and ten 
armor-clads with a torpedo schoolship. There are also five 
cruisers, two corvettes, seventeen gunboats, two transports, 
and several smaller vessels. The crews and officers amount to 
5,790 men. 

Brazil during the last years of the last decade has been fast History 
approaching a crisis. One of the causes of the revolution that since 1870. 
occurred in 1890 was the general growth of the sentiment of 
republicanism throughout the nation. The emancipation 
movement was perhaps another and was equally strong. In 
1871 the anti-slavery movement was strong enough to carry 
through a federal law involving the gradual extinction of 
slavery by a clause making every child born after its passage 
of a slave mother free. This, however, was not fast enough. 
In 1885 two states, Maranhao and Cear^, set free all the slaves 
within their borders. In 1885 all slaves over sixty years of 
age were freed by federal law. Sao Paulo followed the ex- 
ample of the two other states at the same time, and on May 
13, 1888, both Chambers passed bills freeing all slaves in the 
country and making the holding of slaves illegal. Three 
quarters of a million of human beings were freed. 

But this was not accomplished without extreme opposition, 
and the division among the people on this question gave the 
immediate stimulus toward what resulted in a bloodless revo- 
lution and a change from empire to republic in. 1889. The 
only explanation of this peaceful revolution that can be 
given is that the character of the Brazilians is naturally 
phlegmatic and averse to uprisings, and that the people had 
had examples of similar peaceful changes of government 
in the action of Portugal in 1807, of King John in 1821, 
and Doni Pedro I. in 1831. The question of a change had, 
however, been long in the public mind, and the people of 



70 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

Brazil were only waiting for some sufficient cause to pro- 
claim the republic. Count d'Eu, the heir to the throne and 
the husband of Princess Isabella, was not popular, and v/hen 
the troops were sent to the frontier and only the royal guard 
retained in the cities, the Historical Republicans, fearing an 
attempt to set up the Count d'Eu's claims, organized on the 
9th of November, 1889, a revolution which was carried out 
within a week by Fonseca. Dom Pedro resigned to avert 
bloodshed, and a national convention was called to draw up 
a constitution. Fonseca was made president and for a time 
the new government seemed to be firmly established. But 
the enormous deficits in the budgets, the depreciation of the 
currency, and, most of all, the determination of the president 
to make large appropriations at such a time for the improve- 
ment of the harbor of Porto Alegre, caused a division in the 
ministry which culminated in open hostilities between Con- 
gress and the president. The former in the last part of 1891 
passed an act denying the right of the president to veto bills, 
and this being unconstitutional Fonseca tried to correct it 
by doing another illegal thing, and dissolved the assem- 
blies. Whereupon, revolution appearing imminent, he re- 
signed and the danger of bloodshed was again averted. 
Peixotto was made president on the 23d of November, 1891. 

In late September of 1893, the province of Rio Grande do 
Sul, which is composed of inhabitants who are continually 
divided between the desire to revolt to the Argentine Republic 
and the desire to become independent, broke out into revolu- 
tion. According to the constitution the president can send 
federal troops into a province if an insurrection arises, and 
the complaint is that Peixotto took every occasion to do this, 
showing that he looked forward to the possibility of making 
Brazil an empire again under his personal rule. This was 
taken advantage of by the minority in Congress, and a hostile 
movement started against the president, which resulted in 
the recent revolution. 

The rule of Peixotto was somewhat on the military order, 
and in this he was supported by the army. The navy, on 
the other hand, was opposed to him, and when this inter- 
ference in the affairs of Rio Grande do Sul occurred, Mello, the 
admiral of the fleet, went there with a portion of the navy to 



BRAZIL. 71 

support the inhabitants in a revolt. Out of this grew the re- 
bellion, which gradually became the struggle of the republic 
as represented by Peixotto against those who looked for a 
return to monarchical government as represented by Mello. 
The struggle was desultory and extended through the winter. 
The Peixotto government was strong on land and weak on 
water, and the other vice versa. Peixotto then fitted out im- 
promptu warships in the United States. Late in 1893 Ad- 
miral Mello went to the south to be in Rio Grande do Sul, and 
Admiral de Gama became the commander of the rebellion. 
The war went on in a desultory fashion, it becoming more 
evident every day that Peixotto must eventually win, as the 
naval forces had little or no funds to help them. 

Finally, on January 29, 1894, Admiral Benham, of the 
United States navy, commanding in Brazilian waters, threat- 
ened to fire on the revolutionists if they interfered with 
neutral shipping. At this De Gama offered to give up the 
war and put himself under the orders of the United States. 
This was refused, and from that time the revolutionists' navy 
weakened, until in February and March the soldiers and sail- 
ors began to desert. The final blow was given to the whole 
insurrection on March 1, by the election of Dr. Prudente de 
Moraes as president of the republic of Brazil. He took office 
in November, 1894. De Gama and his officers fled first to a 
Portuguese frigate and then to Portugal, and the war ended 
with a quickly suppressed uprising in the southern provinces. 
Brazil seems now to be at peace again. 



BRITISH EMPIRE. 



Queen of England and Empress of India, - Victoria. 

RULERS SINCE 1800. 

George III 1760-1820 I William IV 1830-1837 

George IV 1820-1830 | Victoria 1837- 

MINISTRY. 

Premier, First Lord of the Treasury and Privy Seal Earl Rosebery 

Foreign Secretary Earl Kimberly 

Lord Chancellor Baron Herschell 

Chancellor of the Exchequer Sir William Vernon Harcourt 

Home Secretary Herbert H. Asquith 

President of the Local Gov. Board.. ..The Rt. Hon. George Shaw-Lefevre 

Secretary of State for War The Right Hon. H. Campbell-Bannerman 

First Lord of the Admiralty Earl Spencer 

Chief Secretary for Ireland The Right Hon. John Morley 

President of the Board of Trade The Right Hon. A. J. Mundella 

Attorney-General Sir Charles Russell 

Solicitor-General John Rigby 

Lord Chancellor of Ireland The Right Hon. Samuel Walker 

Attorney-General for Ireland Mr. Macdermott 

Patronage Secretary to the Treasury ...The Rt. Hon. E. P. C. Majoribanks 

Solicitor-General for Scotland Alexander Asher 

Lord Advocate for Scotland The Right Hon. J. B. Balfour 

Secretary of State for India ...The RightHon.H.H. Fowler 

Secretary of State for the Colonies The Marquis of Ripen 

Secretary for Scotland ..Sir George O. Trevelyan 

Postmaster-General .». Mr. Arnold Morley 

Vice-President Council of Education... Mr. Arthur Herbert Dyke Acland 

Viceroy of Ireland Baron Houghton 

Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster James Brj^ce 

TABLE OF STATISTICS. 



State. 



England 

Scotland 

Wales 

Ireland , 

Channel Islands 
Isle of Man 



Total 121,481 



Area. 



50,823 

30,417 

7,363 

32,583 

75 

220 



Pop- 
ulation. 



27,482,104 

4,033,103 

1,518,914 

4,706,162 

92,272 

55,598 



37,888,153 



Capital. 


H.ofP. 

519* 
I6t 

'281 

1 


London. 
Edinburgh. 
Cardiff. 
Dubhn. 








563 1 



H.ofC. 



465 
72 
30 

103 



670 



* These peers represent the realm, not England alone, f Elected for 
each Parliament. % Elected for life. 
MINISTERS 
George III. 



1801, Addington, Tory. 
1804, Pitt, Tory. 

1806, "All the Talents "-Granville. 

1807, Portland, Tory. 
1810, Perceval, Tory. 
1812, Liverpool, Tory. 

George IV. 

1827, Canning, Tory. 

1827, Goderich, Tory. 

1828, WeUington, Tory. 

William IV. 
1830, Grey, AVhig. 
1834, Melbourne, Whig. 

1834, Peel, Tory. 

1835, Melbourne, Whig. 



SINCE 1800. 

Victoria. 
1841, Peel, Conservative. 
1846, Russell, Liberal. 
1852, Derby, Conservative. 
1852, Aberdeen, Whig-Peelite, 
1855, Palmerston, Liberal. 

1858, Derby, Conservative. 

1859, Palmerston, Liberal. 

1865, Russell, Liberal. 

1866, Derby, Conservative. 
1868, Disraeli, Conservative. 
1868, Gladstone, Liberal. 
1874, Disraeli, Conservative. 
1880, Gladstone, Liberal. 

1885, Salisbury, Conservative. 

1886, Gladstone, Liberal. 
1886, Salisburv, Conservative. 
1892, Gladstone, Liberal. 
1894, Rosebery, Liberal. 



BRITISH EMPIRE. 



The British Isles lie north of the northern coast of France, 
separated from it only by the narrow English Channel, and 
they constitute the 
western boundary 
of the German 
Ocean, dividing it 
from the Atlantic. 
They are composed 
of Great Britain — 
England, Scotland, 
and Wales — I r e - 
land, the Channel 
Islands, the Isle of 
Man, the S h e t - 
lands, the Orkneys, 
and numerous 
small islands along 
the coast of one or 
the other greater 
ones. The peculiar- 
ity of the British 
Empire is that its 
colonial possessions 
touch upon all the 
nations of the earth 
and hence, though 
the central govern- 
ment is on an iso- 
lated island, it 
comes into close 
contact with all 
countries. The gov- 
ernment is a constitutional monarchy in the most liberal sense, 

73 




74 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

and the constitution is one of precedent, not a written code 
of laws and statutes. 
History ^^^ history of England since 1800 is one of reform in social 

from 1800 to and political matters on all sides. From 1793 the government 
^ ^^' was harassed by the wars of Europe under Napoleon and 
many of its troubles can be traced to that cause. With the 
defeat of Napoleon on the 18th of July, 1815, however, peace 
became general again and the regeneration period began. 
George III. had been reigning king of England since 1760, 
and the Tory and Whig parties (afterward, from 1840, Con- 
servative and Liberal) changed places as Government and Op- 
position, as the policy of the one or the other became disagree- 
able to the king. On the declaration of peace, England was 
in a fit state for reform. She had been wasted by different 
kinds of small tax laws ; the long years of war had made it 
necessary to continually renew taxation, and when peace 
finally came there were many troubles social, financial, and 
political, to be settled. Riots against the introduction of 
machinery were prevalent after 1812. The ministry of Lord 
Liverpool with Lord Castlereagh as the real ruler was so 
opposed to reform that that spirit only thrived the more under 
it. Towards 1820 matters began to crystallize. A meeting to 
protest against certain labor laws in Manchester in 1819 was 
suppressed by military force. Some persons were killed and a 
great deal of ill feeling created against the government, and 
out of this and similar occurrences grew the Cato conspiracy 
in 1820, when Thistlewood, a leader of the people, organized a 
scheme to kill the entire ministry. The plan was discovered 
and the conspirators tracked to a Cato Street house and some 
of them executed without delay. 

In the same year George III. died. He had been practi- 
cally insane for eight or ten years and was consequently held 
in little respect, but his successor, George IV., was hated per- 
sonally much m.ore. His accusation against his queen, Caro- 
line, and refusal to recognize her, and the famous trial that fol- 
lowed in which she was acquitted, brought the royal family 
into still greater disrepute. The tendency throughout the 
kingdom toward revolution and reform was strengthened by 
this scandal in the royal family. At this point Castlereagh 
conamitted suicide. He had been the secretary of foreign 



BRITISH EMPIRE. 76 

affairs in Lord Liverpool's ministry and now George Canning 
took his place. Canning changed the policy abroad at once. 
He opposed the Holy Alliance and anything that tended to 
suppress progress. He recognized, in direct violation of 
Castlereagh's principles, the struggling South American col- 
onies and even aided them to fight off France and Spain. 
At the Congress of Verona, in 1822, England broke away from 
the policy of those governments which were attempting to 
rule by the suppression of the people's demands. 

This was the beginning of the reform period that lasted 
irregularly for thirty years in England. The first change was 
made in the breaking down of the Navigation Laws which 
forbade goods being imported into England except in English 
ships. An arrangement was made allowing for a reciprocity 
in trade and tariff. Slave trade, too, under Wilberforce's 
energies came still more into disfavor and steps towards its 
final extinction were begun. On the death of Lord Liverpool 
in 1827 Canning became premier, but he could form no satis- 
factory ministry and sank under ill health and overwork, 
dying after a few days. A short six months' ministry under 
Lord Goderich fell because it was too weak to stand, owing to 
the disfavDr of public opinion brought upon it by the battle 
of Navarino, where the British fleet, with the French and 
Russian, annihilated the Egyptian men-of-war, then on their 
way against Greece. Then came the ministry of the Duke 
of Wellington with Sir Robert Peel as his leader in the House 
of Commons. The first important question was the Catholic 
disturbances under Daniel O'Connell. The Catholic Church 
had been under a ban for years in Ireland, though three quar- 
ters of the population were Catholics, and O'Connell started an 
association which was the direct cause of eventually bringing 
about the passage of an act permitting Catholics to sit in Par- 
liament, to hold all but the few highest ofiices, and to have 
equal right to hold office in Ireland with Protestants. Well- 
ington found it necessary to put this through in order to save 
a civil war, and the House of Lords had finally to reconsider 
its vote and agree with the Commons in passing the bill. 
This was so contrary to Tory spirit that the Wellington min- 
istry gave way in 1830. In the same year George IV. died and 
William IV., his brother, succeeded him as king. 



76 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

The ministry of Earl Grey and that of Lord Melbourne, with 
a few months of a Peel ministry in the year 1834, ran until 
1841. These two ministries accomplished more for England 
than any others in the nineteenth century. The times were 
stirring ; riots and bloodshed were common all over the 
country ; petitions with enormous numbers of signatures were 
constantly submitted to the House ; and bills were passed 
with the greatest amount of opposition. First the slavery 
system was abolished in all British colonies in 1833 at great 
expense. The large Trading Company, which for years held 
control of the government and the trade with India, was 
broken, deprived of its political power, and commerce opened 
to all in the same year. Previous to this, however, the 
greatest reform of all had gone through both Houses. It was 
the first act of the Grey ministry, passed amidst the great- 
est excitement and popular demonstration. Fifty-six so-called 
" rotten boroughs " were destroyed ; that is, seats in the Com- 
mions formerly held by large estates which had dwindled into 
nothing, while huge cities had grown up elsewhere without 
having a member to represent their interests in Parliament. 
This gave one hundred and forty-three seats to cities, and any 
one with an income of £10 a year under the manhood conditions 
could vote after its passage. Besides these reform bills, the 
new Poor Law was passed in 1834 which provided for work- 
ing-houses, systems for giving labor to those out of work, and 
the doing away to some extent with the poorhouse system. 
Again in 1835 the local municipal government rights were 
restored, and now under its clauses town and city govern 
themselves in local matters. In 1836 the right of civil mar- 
riage was a step in reform which, though evident enough to- 
day, was one of the greatest achievements of the time, as it ren- 
dered marriage independent of any church. Finally, in 1839, 
the creation of a board of education in the privy council gave 
an organized system of public education to the kingdom. 

This period of reform ended in 1839. A ministry of Tory 
government was attempted under Peel, but the king could not 
force it and it lasted only a few months. Ireland was becom- 
ing troublesome ; O'Connell kept up his agitation for the 
Irish Parliament as it had been before 1800 ; a weak govern- 
ment could not stand under such disturbances as the Irish 



BRITISH EMPIRE. 77 

began to create. Then, too, troubles arose in foreign affairs. 
Canada, Upper and Lower, was in the midst of its struggle. 
Also on the borders of Afghanistan, Englishmen were set to 
fighting. In the Khyber Pass, one of the two narrow roads 
into Afghanistan from India, 16,000 English were murdered, 
and vengeance was taken in 1842 by a force under General 
Pollock, who captured the capital city, Cabul, and razed it. 
In 1839 this trouble was at its height, and it was at the same 
time and for four years more that the Sepoy Rebellion in 
India was occupying the public mind. By the death of the 
king, Victoria, daughter of the Duke of Kent and niece of 
William, became queen in 1837. The parties remained the 
same until 1841, when the elections brought back a Tory — 
now Conservative — government. Melbourne went out and 
Sir Robert Peel again became the head of the government. 
The days of the interference of the crown in legislative mat- 
ters came to an end, and representative government from this 
time forth was a fact as well as a name. Men who w^ere more 
interested in their country and less subservient to the crown 
entered the House of Commons. The custom of changing 
the government when a majority was shown to be against it 
in the House became fixed also, and the premier now held his 
office subject to the vote of the Commons, rather than subject 
to the will of the sovereign. 

The great political event of the next few years was the 
trouble over the Corn Law agitation. In 1815 a law had been 
passed to encourage the production of corn at home, and a duty 
had been placed upon foreign corn sufficiently high to pre- 
vent its importation. Great dissatisfaction and suffering re- 
sulted. In 1839 the Anti-Corn-Law League had been formed 
to oppose the protective duties. A year after his entrance to 
office Sir Robert Peel, though an advocate of protective 
measures, brought forward a bill in the House of Commons 
making a sliding scale in the corn duty, which, when the 
price was low — and the supply of corn consequently great^ — 
excluded foreign produce ; but which, on the other hand, 
allowed its importation when a scarcity occurred and the 
price of the domestic produce rose to a certain height. But 
the influence of the Anti-Corn-Law League increased to such 
an extent that, on the failure of the crops in Ireland in 1846, 



78 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

its members forced Peel to bring forward a bill for the entire 
repeal of the Corn Laws. The measure was too radical for 
the ministry to hold up under, and Peel was forced to resign. 
He was succeeded by Lord John Russell at the head of a 
Whig ministry which remained in office until 1852. This was 
the beginning of a more liberal spirit in British politics, hav- 
ing its source in the advance of popular education. The 
Navigation Laws, that had been in force for so many years 
and had confined the transportation of colonial produce to 
British ships, were repealed and English trade was thrown 
open to the world. Greater reductions in the tariff laws fol- 
lowed in 1853 under the Aberdeen ministry, which had suc- 
ceeded that of Lord Russell in 1852, and a remarkable period 
of reform was begun in most of the branches of the govern- 
ment. In the same year a complete rearrangement of the 
electoral laws was made, and a Reform Bill was carried 
through amid the most strenuous opposition. Rotten 
boroughs were abolished in many cases, and the votes formerly 
held by these districts were now given to the populous cities 
as before. As a result, in the next election the House of Com- 
mons represented the English people more thoroughly than 
ever before. 

The Crimean War occupied the foreign office with its many 
complications from 1853 to 1856, and at the peace of Paris 
England became still more deeply entangled in the Eastern 
Question.* The rebellion in India was another source of 
trouble in British foreign affairs in 1857. It was with diffi- 
culty suppressed, and it caused the government to take direct 
control of India from that time forth. 

Lord Palmerston's ministry was remarkable for the finan- 
cial reforms which were brought about by the Chancellor of 
the Exchequer, Mr. W. E. Gladstone. Paimerston's policy 
was one of inaction at home and abroad. During his term of 
office, interrupted for a few months by a short ministry under 
Lord Derby, he maintained a neutral position towards the 
Italian war, the Civil War in America, the insurrection in 
Poland, the Denmark war, and the war of France against 
Mexico. On his death in 1865, however, the spirit of reform 



* See Russia, Turkey, and Egypt. 



BRITISH EMPIRE. 79 

arose again under the ministry of Earl Russell. The latter at 
once brought forward a second Reform Bill in 1866, but it was 
rejected by a Conservative majority, and the ministry re- 
signed, to be succeeded by Lord Derby and a Conservative 
government. The new minister found himself obliged to 
introduce an election bill still more sweeping in its reforms 
than the Russell bill. Its passage was one of the brilliant 
political strokes of Mr. Disraeli, who was the leader of the 
House. The measure passed both Houses in 1867. 

In 1868 the effects of the new suffrage law were seen in the 
return of a large Liberal majority and, after a short ministry un- 
der Disraeli, Mr. Gladstone became prime minister. One of his 
early measures was the disestablishment of the Irish Church. 
He also carried through a bill for the better distribution of land 
in Ireland in the hope of settling the troubles in that part of 
the kingdom. He retained his hold on the people until 1874, 
when, owing to the extraordinary number and extent of his 
liberal changes in the government of the country, he was 
obliged to resign. Mr. Disraeli became minister again. 

There is no necessity for an authority, similar to that of the 
Supreme Court of the United States, to decide upon the con- Consti- 
stitutionality of acts of Parliament, since Parliament itself 
cannot pass an unconstitutional act. Each bill that receives 
the sanction of both Houses becomes a part of the British con- 
stitution, and it is in this way that the constitution has grown 
through many centuries, changed from time to time by 
charters and precedents, by grants and acts of Parliament. 

In the course of this growth the crown has steadily lost 
power in political matters, until now, though its position as a 
centralizing force holds the empire together, it has no real 
executive quality. The prerogatives of the crown are now 
confined to the summoning, opening, and closing of both 
Houses, the delivering of speeches at the opening of Parlia- 
ment, the appointment of ministers, and the adjourning of 
the House of Commons. The last two prerogatives are never 
exercised, however, except under the advice and at the insti- 
gation of the premier. The legal title of the crown since 
1887 has been, " Victoria, by the Grace of God, of the United 
Kingdom and Ireland, Queen, Defender of the Faith, Em- 
press of India." 



Crown. 



80 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

The two bodies of men who stand closest to the crown in 
the government have grown out of the many charters and 
grants of the kings of England. The first of these, the privy 
council, was formerly a council attached to the person of the 
Norman kings. The name was adopted in 1660. In the 
reign of Charles II. a smaller group of councilors taken from 
the privy council was appointed a cabinety and since then 
this body has been the responsible part of the government. 
It was at first composed of members of that political party 
whose views were most agreeable to the sovereign, but as early 
as the reign of George II. it became a fact that the cabinet 
was responsible to the people for advice given the sovereign. 
Their retirement on a hostile vote did not become a custom 
until later, however. The members remain in office, there- 
fore, only so long as their party retains a majority in the 
House of Commons, and while they are in office they are 
known as the " Government." When it is clearly shown that 
the sentiment of the House, and therefore of the country, is 
against them the members resign ; and in this second position 
those who supported them are known as the "Opposition." 

The Parliament of Great Britain dissolves once in seven 
Legis- years regularly for new elections, under the articles of the 
Septennial Act, passed in 1716. Elections occur oftener, how- 
ever, as the custom has obtained in the present century of 
having an election whenever a question of great importance is 
brought up, in order that a direct expression of opinion may 
be had from the people. In addition to this, when the gov- 
' ernment is put in a minority and the cabinet accordingly 

resigns a new election is held. The result is that instead of 
seven years, the average duration of a Parliament has been 
about three and a half years. 

The House of Lords has gradually fallen into the back- 
ground, owing to certain powers given the Commons and to 
the fact that the will of the people is more certainly expressed 
in the elective House. Its powers have decreased commensu- 
rately with the growth of sufirage and the rights of the indi- 
vidual to govern himself. The House of Lords is composed 
of members who hold their seats (1) by right of heredity, 
(2) by appointment of the sovereign, (8) by virtue of office — 
churchmen, (4) by election for life — Irish members, and (5) by 



BRITISH EMPIRE. 81 

election for one parliamentary term — Scotchmen. There are 
at present about 651 members, but the number varies. Party 
distinction is not recognized in the House of Lords. The 
members do not originate measures, except such as refer only 
to the peerage, but they pass upon acts of the House of Com- 
mons. The latter prerogative amounts to very little now, as 
the Commons have secured the right to create new peers at 
pleasure, and by the mere threat that a sufficient number of 
peers will be added to the House of Lords to bring any vote 
in question over to the majority in tlie Lower House, the 
Commons can force a favorable vote in the Lords. This threat 
has been sufficient hitherto except in two or three in- 
stances. The members of the House of Lords have access to 
the presence of the sovereign at any time, and those in the 
minority may record their vote in the journals of the House. 

The House of Commons is the real legislative authority of 
the empire. It has the right to initiate all measures referring 
to the budget, and does not allow the Lords to pass upon 
money or taxation bills. Thus the Commons can prevent a 
war that has been declared by the crown by refusing to vote 
supplies for the army ; thus it can keep up annual Parliaments 
by voting the peace supplies (Army Estimates) for the army 
for one year only ; and thus it can regulate certain acts coming 
under the prerogative of the crown, by stipulating how dif- 
ferent items of an appropriation shall be administered. 

The election of members has been secured by the Reform 
Acts of 1832 and 1861, the Corrupt Practices Acts of 1854 and 
1883, and the Ballot Act of 1872. Under these laws the right 
to vote is granted to all males in England who have attained 
their majority and have signed certain papers in regard- to 
education, occupation, etc., and who come under any of the 
suffrage laws. These are four : (1) The Household Qualifica- 
tion grants the right of suffrage to a man who has occupied a 
house, or a part of a house, or a room, in borough or county, 
for one year up to the 15th of July. (2) The Occupation Quali- 
fication obliges a voter to have occupied a tenement — either 
as owner or tenant — the rent of which amounts to at least 
£10 a year, for one year to the 15th of July. In the counties 
this applies only to the residents within the parliamentary , 
district, and, where people are liviug together, only, to two ; 



82 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

but in the boroughs it applies in addition to people living six 
months of the year within seven miles of the parliamentary 
boundary and to any number of persons in the same house ; 
provided only that each pays a rental of £10. (3) The Service 
Qualification applies, in both borough and county, similar 
rules to servants in offices or dwelling houses, where the 
employer — a voter — does not reside himself. (4) The Lodge 
Qualification allows a lodger in county or borough alike who 
pays £10 a year rent to vote, a claim having been duly entered. 

The procedure of business in the House of Commons is in 
most points the same as in the Congress of the United States. 
There are private bills and government bills, and each one 
goes through a regular routine called the "stages." It has to 
have permission (1) to be introduced ; (2) to be read ; (3) to be 
moved by a member to a second reading ; (4) to be amended if 
necessary, the speaker leaving the chair and the House re- 
solving itself into a Committee of the Whole to discuss the 
amendments, which are to be again reported to the House ; 
(5) to be perhaps amended again by the House sitting under 
. its speaker ; and finally (6) to be read a third time. Then if it 
secures a majority it becomes an act, awaiting the ratification 
of the House of Lords. In the Upper House it is put 
through the same stages. If amended there, it goes back to 
the Lower House, and if the amendments are accepted they 
become part of the act. If not, a "conflict" is created, 
. whereupon one of the Houses gives way — usually the Lords — 
or the act goes over to the next session. Sometimes a joint 
committee of both Houses meets to settle the difficulty. To 
facilitate business select committees are being appointed more 
frequently of late. They report to the Commons, and then 
the vote can be taken usually without so long a discussion. 
But the House of Commons is many years behind in its busi- 
ness. One of the most important questions in political gov- 
ernment to-day is that of obviating delay and accelerating 
parliamentary legislation without damaging the rights of free 
speech and open discussion. 

The executive was originally with the crown, but it has long 
Executive, since passed out of the sovereign's hands, and is now divided 
up among boards and councils, each carrying out the execu- 
tive functions within its own sphere, and all centralizing in 



BRITISH EMPIRE. 83 

the cabinet, which is partially composed of the heads of the 
different boards. These are nine in number. 

The Treasury is presided over by the Lord High Treasurer 
nominally, but in practice by the Chancellor of the Ex- 
chequer and the First Lord of the Treasury. The work of 
the treasury is to collect revenues, to control expenditure and 
the mints, to make up the budget — the annual plan for 
arranging and disbursing the revenue in advance — and to put 
it before the Commons for sanction ; finally, to exercise gen- 
eral supervision of the finances of the state in every depart- 
ment. In passing the budget the House resolves itself again 
into the Committee of the Whole to vote upon the bill, and 
into the Committee on Ways and Means to discuss its differ- 
ent items. 

The Board of Edimation was created out of the members of 
the privy council in 1853. This body attends to the disburse- 
ment of money for schools, etc. Besides the officers of the 
government it comprises a large staff of examiners, who have 
general charge of the regulations and systems to be employed 
in English schools. In 1870 the Elementary Education Act 
made it obligatory to have a school in every district in Eng- 
land. The board's rules are sanctioned by Parliament. 

In 1837 a Committee on Trade was created out of the privy 
council to watch over the trade of Great Britain, and in 1876 
it became the Local Government Board. This takes charge of 
commercial matters, which are divided up among secretaries 
for harbors, finance, commerce, statistics, etc. There are 
subordinate boards of trade in many cities. The board con- 
trols all districts and municipalities in the kingdom, and it is 
a court of appeal and an auditing body for all local matters of 
administration. 

The Foreign Office is one of the oldest of the boards. The 
foreign secretary is often the premier, since from the im- 
portance and the enforced secrecy of the office, it is well that 
the head of the government should hold this position also. 
The foreign secretary can act without the sanction of Parlia- 
ment, though he is open to censure afterwards. He has 
charge of the foreign relations of the country. 

The Home Office is headed by the home secretary, who has 
charge of all matters between individuals and the state. 



84 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

He is the head of the niunicipal civil organizations, police, 
etc., and has authority to cause investigation to be made into 
crime, to force or stop criminal procedure, and to carry out 
other civil duties. 

The Colonial Office is a very important part of the execu- 
tive. Its secretary has to communicate on all colonial affairs 
with the colonial governments ; all acts passed by the colonial 
legislatures are referred to him and through him to Parlia- 
ment ; to him must come the individual annual budgets of 
the colonies for sanction. He is, in fact, the medium, of corre- 
spondence between the imperial government and its colonies. 

The Indian Office is composed of a council of fifteen mem- 
bers -who serve ten years, nine of whom must have lived five 
years in India. It is divided into eleven committees, which 
hold a relative position to the council corffesponding to that of 
the different boards above mentioned to the cabinet and privy 
council. The council was established in 1858, after the break- 
ing up of the political power of the East India Company. 

The War Office has jurisdiction over the personnel of the 
army and its movements. Its authority conflicts at times 
with that of the commander-in-chief, A secretary, who is a 
civil officer, is answerable to Parliament for the conduct of 
affairs in the department and, as the Commons vote the 
supplies, etc., the control really rests with it and the secre- 
tary. In 1887 the secretary was made head of the civil 
department and the commander-in-chief of the military 
department of the war office, and the two divisions are kept 
as distinct as possible. 

The Admiralty is composed of a First Lord and four junior 
lords, arid it has the management of the navy wherever it 
may be. The First Lord is a cabinet minister and generally a 
civilian. 

By an act passed in 1690 the House of Commons passes the 
"Army Estimate" Bill annuall3\ Without this consent of 
Navy, Parliament no army can be maintained in time of peace or 
war. There is also the " Army Bill " voted by the Commons, 
which gives authority to the crown to regulate the arrange- 
ments of the army proper. These two powers virtually put 
the army in the hands of Parliament. In time of peace, 
under the 1893 " Estimate Bill," forces were as follows : 



Army and 



BRITISH EMPIRE. 85 

In Great Britain 114,083 

In Egypt 6,149 

In the colonies 33,510 

In India 73,458 

Total, officers and men 227,200 

This constitutes the regular army^ but to these must be 
added the volunteers, 262,613 ; the militia, 141,488 ; the army- 
reserves, 72,710; and the yeomanry, 14,086. These make a 
total for the army (in peace) of 718,097. Great Britain and 
Ireland are divided into fourteen districts, each under a 
military commander. Each contains a certain contingent 
of infantry, cavalry, and artillery, and all are divided again 
into sub-districts. These are all subordinate to the war office 
and to the commander-in-chief. 

The navy is governed by the admiralty, in which the First 

Lord has supreme authority with the assistance of his four 

junior lords, who divide the labors of the office. The fleets 

are directed and controlled, provided for and equipped by 

him, while the parliamentary and financial secretary is 

responsible to Parliament for all moneys used. The strength 

of the British Empire on the seas in 1892 was as follows : 

Armored ships 62 

Protected ships..... 29 

Unprotected ships 282 

Total 373 

They were of a total tonnage of 679,144 tons and represented 
an expenditure of £35,635,719. It is the strongest navy in the 
world. In 1895 it is proposed to increase the vessels to more 
than 500. 

The history of England since 1874 is again one of reform in 
political and social matters. Labor troubles, their results and history. 
the circumstances which accompany them, form a large part 
of the history, as they do of any other of the civilized coun- 
tries of Europe for this period ; foreign relations require another 
large share of the student's attention, and the colonial matters 
are perhaps as important as anything. 

On his entrance into power again in 1874, Disraeli proceeded 
with his foreign policy at the expense of home affairs. The Mimstnes. 
question in Central Asia occupied his attention ; the Prince of 
Wales' trip into India in 1875 and the assumption by the 
queen of the title of "Empress of India" at the same time 



86 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

were both his work ; the insurrection in Turkey and con- 
sequent trouble with Russia also had his attention ; and, 
finally, the Zulu wars in South Africa caused by the annexa- 
tion of Transvaal in 1877. These were the principal events of 
his term of office. War was carried on against the African 
natives until the battle of Ulund, when the Zulus were for the 
time suppressed. In 1881 it was deemed wise to desist and to 
form a Transvaal republic, independent in most matters, but 
under English protection. Parliament dissolved in 1880, 
owing to the aggressive and unsuccessful procedure in foreign 
matters, and Beaconsfield resigned before the reassembling of 
Parliament. Gladstone became premier again. The ministry 
included Mr. Gladstone, Lord Hartington, Sir William Har- 
court. Earl Granville, Mr. Forster, Sir Charles Dilke, Mr. 
Bright, and Mr. Faucett. The diffl-culties in foreign matters 
that beset the new ministry were great, and Mr. Gladstone's 
failure in Egypt, in his attempt to settle the Soudan question 
and to rescue Gordon,* was one of the causes, perhaps the 
most important one, of his fall in 1885. In matters at home, 
Ireland occupied much of the attention of the ministry from 
1880 to 1885, as it has since then. The policy of the Liberals 
was to leave as much as possible to the Irish themselves, and 
this gradually grew into the resurrection of proposals for an 
Irish Parliament. One of the great works of this period, add- 
ing as it did two million voters by its passage in 1884, was a bill 
for the redistribution of seats. The government came into the 
hands of the Conservatives under Lord Salisbury again in 
1886, the principal members being Sir Michael Hicksbeach, 
Sir Richard Cross, Lord Randolph Churchill (resigned shortly 
after appointment), and Lord Iddlesbeigh (Sir Stafford North- 
cote). This ministry remained in office only a year, owing to 
the fact that in the general elections under the new Franchise 
Bill, the Liberals had a majority of over one hundred, ex- 
clusive of the Irish members. Lord Salisbury at once re- 
signed, on January 12, 1886, and the Gladstone ministry 
returned, composed principally this time of Sir William Har- 
court, Mr. Morley, Lord Granville, and Lord Rosebery. The 
two questions of importance were the readjustment of land 
tenure in Ireland and Mr. Gladstone's Home Rule Bill, on 

* See Egypt. 



BRITISH EMPIRE. 87 

which his ministry fell before the year was out. The proposal 
of the bill caused a " split " in the Liberal party, and Lord 
Hartington, as the leader of the Liberal-Unionists, brought 
about the fall of the ministry by voting with the Conserva- 
tives. Another election was thrown upon the country and 
the Conservatives combining with the Liberal-Unionists at 
the polls gained a large majority. Mr. Gladstone resigned be- 
fore Parliament assembled. Lord Salisbury again became 
prime minister with the same ministry and Mr. W. H. Smith, 
Mr. Goschen, and Mr. Balfour. The great success of the 
party was due to the fact that its methods of coercion in Ire- 
land, combined with certain assistance given to the Irishmen, 
have brought about great improvement among the people of 
Ireland. In the summer of 1892, according to the Septennial 
Act, new elections were held throughout the kingdom and 
the Liberals were returned with a small working majority, 
and a majority of forty-two, with the Parnellites, against 
combined Conservatives and Liberal-Unionists. Mr. Glad- 
stone became premier again in August. His resignation in 
March, 1894, on account of age and failing eyesight, made a 
slight change in the person7icl of the cabinet without chang- 
ing the party in power. Lord Rosebery became premier, an- 
nouncing that the policy of the government would not be 
changed. 

The question of Irish government and Irish politics has 
been, perhaps, the most important subject before Parliament 
for the last fifteen years. It has taken up a large part of the 
time given to legislative work, partly because of its real im- 
portance ; partly because of the new method of obstruction 
begun about 1874, through which the few Irish members, by 
bringing parliamentary rules into play, were enabled to delay 
the business of the House ; and, finally, because the condition 
of Ireland demanded some legislation. 

The Irish Parliament had been dissolved in 1800, because it 
was found impossible to keep the two Parliaments up under 
the existing system. Innumerable difficulties had arisen 
from this separation and the "Act of Union'' went into 
eflfect January, 1801. This did away with the Parliament at 
Dublin and gave the Irish race representation in the Parlia- 
m.ent at Westminster. Suggestions for a return to the two 



Ireland. 



88 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

Parliaments were made from tim.e to time, but nothing came 
of them. In 1878 an amendment to the queen's address was 
moved in favor of Home Rule for Ireland, but it was rejected 
by a large vote, the reply being that the government was 
willing to do anything that it could for Ireland, but that 
a Parliament at Dublin was out of the question. From that 
time, however, the little party of Home Rulers has been an 
important element in the House of Commons. The whole 
movement dates from the question of land tenure in Ireland, 
and it is safe to say that most of the troubles of the last fifteen 
years can be traced to that. From old laws it appears that 
land in Ireland was once owned in small lots by the peasants, 
and out of this, perhaps, has grown the feeling among the 
peasants and tenants that they have certain claims to the 
land. These rights, whatever they were, were curtailed by 
three laws passed by Parliament before 1870. The first pro- 
vided that when a tenant lost his case in court against his 
landlord, on matters concerning land, he paid twice the costs. 
The second made a growing crop, or one not yet gathered, a 
part of the landlord's property. If he had a claim against the 
tenant, he could send his agent to gather the crop and carry it 
away. Finally, the right of turning the tenant off his 
holding for the non-payment of rent was the third and the 
most important of all. Mr. Gladstone's Act of 1870 attempted 
to spread the privileges enjoyed in Ulster, where the tenant 
had more claims to the land, over the whole of Ireland ; but 
he failed to accomplish his object entirely. Then came an act 
providing for the advancement of two thirds of the purchase 
money to a tenant, giving him the land on a thirty-six years' 
lease on the payment of the other third. 

It is important here to notice three of the natural causes of 
trouble in Ireland, the barrenness of the land, the fact 
that the inhabitants live almost entirely on what they can 
raise from it, and their lack of progressive industries. In 
1870 half the island was pasture-land ; one quarter of it was 
bog and waste, and a little more than one quarter was culti- 
vated. Cultivated land had been slowly going out of cultiva- 
tion into pasture without bringing any greater return as 
pasture. Emigration and starvation had reduced the popula- 
tion. 



BRITISH EMPIRE. 89 

POPULATION OF IREIiAND. 

1831 7,767,401 1871 5,402,759 

1841 8,199,853 1881 5,174,836 

1851 6,514,473 1891 4,706,162 

1861 5,798,624 

This is a fact without parallel in the history of recent times. 
It is easy to see that with so little cultivation the inhabitants 
have found it necessary either to emigrate or to starve, as the 
birth-rate has not fallen off. When a poor year comes, the 
result is a famine, and a consequent — and natural — uprising 
against the landlord. Such a famine came in 1879, and the 
accompanying excitement came with it. Much relief was 
sent from England and America but the excitement did not 
abate. Home Rule for the moment was put into the back- 
ground. The troubles brought about the formation of the 
National Irish Land League in October, 1879, with Mr. 
Charles Stewart Parnell as president, which had for its object 
the reduction of rents and the aiding of tenants who were to 
refuse to pay rent if they did not secure a reduction. In 
November, 1880, a man named Boycott, agent of the Earl of 
Erne, served a process of eviction on some tenants, and for 
doing this he was shunned by all butchers, grocers, dealers, 
farmers, etc., so that his farm was left uncared for and he 
found much difficulty in keeping his household running. 
Some Orangemen from the north came to his assistance 
eventually, but the system of " boycotting" was begun then 
and there. The trouble increased in 1881 to such an extent 
that the government called for coercive acts for a limited 
period. After a delay caused by the obstructionists in the 
House of Commons two bills were finally passed. The Pro- 
tection Act empowered the government to arrest and confine 
any persons under suspicion ; and the second act empowered 
the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland to prohibit the carrying of 
arms in Ireland except under license. Finally, on April 7, Mr. 
Gladstone introduced the Irish Land Bill which took the 
entire time of the parliamentary session. The Land League 
in the House was in constant opposition, on the ground that 
a little concession was worse than nothing, but the law 
finally passed in August. It is a complicated arrangement. 
Under the act a commission, or court, is appointed for the 
settlement of difficulties between landlord and tenant. It did 



90 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

not cause so much disturbance as was expected, but the two 
Coercive Acts preceding have been the source of untiring 
condemnation and bitter discussion in Parhament. Immedi- 
ately upon the passage of the Coercive Act several counties 
were put under its clauses, and Dublin among them. Arrests 
began at once under the clause forbidding the inciting to 
illegal acts. Mr. Dillon, M.P., who had incited people to 
support the Land League, was imprisoned in Dublin. The 
passage of these acts and the procedure afterwards, turned 
the Land League into a body of men determined to fight the 
government and force them to retract, and to put the govern- 
ment of Ireland into Irish hands. Resolutions and mani- 
festoes regarding the *' alien rule '' in Ireland were constantly 
published, and the excitement increased. 

In May, 1881, because of the new policy advanced by Mr. 
Gladstone, to the effect that the government would further 
repress free speech and the right of assembly, etc., in Ireland, 
Earl Cowper resigned and Earl Spencer became Lord Lieuten- 
ant of Ireland. Mr. Foster, chief secretary, also resigned and 
Mr. Frederick Cavendish was appointed in his place. The 
day after his arrival in Dublin, May 6, he was walking in 
Phoenix Park with Mr. Burke, the under secretary, when 
they were attacked in broad daylight by four men and 
murdered. The news of this threw the two countries into 
consternation, and made matters much worse for the Irish 
Nationalists, though it is practically certain now that they 
had nothing to do with the murder. One of the most notori- 
ous bills of the decade was immediately introduced — the 
Crimes Act — and passed almost at once. Parnell and fourteen 
others were suspended for attempting to obstruct the business 
of the House and prevent the passage of the bill. This last 
act destroyed the right of assembly and free speech in any 
district that was "proclaimed '' by the Lord Lieutenant, and 
trial by jury could be set aside. The Land League was for the 
time destroyed. In 1883 the Phoenix Park murderers were 
discovered and some of them hung. 

Out of these troubles grew secret organizations in Ireland, 
America, and elsewhere, which sent agents to England to 
blow up buildings and persons with dynamite. Plots were 
discovered in several places and severe punishments inflicted. 



BRITISH EMPIRE. 91 

Another famine was foreseen in tlie early summer of 1883. 
Large sums of money were sent in to aid the sufferers. 
Regular systems of emigration were instituted. One man 
assisted 1,300 people to America, and the state gave similar 
assistance. The enforcement of the Crimes Act brought out 
many complaints and it was not renewed in 1885. The con- 
dition of affairs was growing worse. 

Meanwhile the Liberal party was steadily losing strength, 
partly because of the Irish troubles and partly because of the 
failures in Egypt. Just before the election and at the close of 
a session, Mr. Parnell gave notice that in the next session he 
would bring forward a motion to give Home Rule to Ireland. 
Whereupon the Land Leaguers instructed their constituents to 
vote for the Conservatives and against Parnell. As a result, 
the Conservative government was returned with a good 
majority and Mr. Gladstone resigned. Lord Salisbury, as 
premier, made his policy in Ireland vigorous and coercive, 
hoping thus to force Ireland into order. But the means he 
adopted were so severe that the country turned against him, 
and Mr. Gladstone was returned as premier in a year. One 
of the first bills proposed under the new government was 
Mr. Gladstone's measure for the rule of Irishmen by them- 
selves. It was brought before the House early in 1886. There 
was to be a legislature in Dublin which was to have jurisdic- 
tion over civil and criminal courts in Ireland in all matters 
concerning contracts and the protection of life and property. 
Its jurisdiction was not to extend to changes in the crown, 
army, navy, foreign affairs, colonial affairs, trade, navigation, 
currency, and religious endowments ; the Lord Lieutenant was 
to have the right of veto ; Parliament was to consist of a 
House of Lords and a House of Commons, and no Irishmen 
were to sit in the English Parliament. 

The bill caused a "split" in the Liberal party, and those of 
the Liberals who opposed the bill became, under the leader- 
ship of the Marquis of Hartington, the Liberal-Unionists, 
who, with the aid of the Conservatives, were powerful 
enough to defeat Mr. Gladstone within a few months of his 
appointment. Having returned to office, on the 5th of 
August, 1886, Lord Salisbury gave out his policy in regard to 
Ireland to be one of vigorous enforcement of existing laws 



92 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

and the maintenance of order at any cost. Riots again 
occurred, and the Orangemen and Catholics took opposite 
sides of the question. It had become certain, after a long 
discussion called the "Round Table Conference," that the 
two parts of the Liberal party could not unite, and Mr. 
Parnell and the Land League began to organize the Irish 
tenantry into a body to resist all payment of rent in pro- 
claimed districts. This last became known as "the plan of 
campaign." It began in October, 1886. It only served to in- 
crease the bloodshed on all sides between landlord and tenant. 
Mr. Arthur Balfour, secretary for Ireland, caused the Crimes 
Act to be applied to districts put under "the plan of cam- 
paign" by the Land League in 1887, on the ground that it 
was dangerous to the peace of the country. At the time 
there were about 5,000 farms in Ireland being "boycotted" 
and the tenants were supported by the League. Mr. O'Brien, 
mayor of Dublin and a member of Parliament, was the first 
important victim, on account of his work in Michelstown. 
The case became a test case ; eviction had begun on an estate 
and Mr. O'Brien had encouraged the tenants to resist. He 
was now to be tried in the town ; but a crowd gathered, 
fighting ensued, and policemen shot from behind the barracks 
and killed several persons. In the same year similar occur- 
rences took place in other parts of Ireland. On April 18, 1888, 
a rescript appeared signed by the pope condemning the 
"plan of campaign" and "boycotting." It did little good, 
however, and in order to retain his hold on the people the 
pope was obliged to recant what he had said, which he did in 
the form of decreeing that the rescript applied to the sphere of 
morals only. The church finally contented itself by issuing a 
decree, representing in several clauses the demands of the 
tenant, and asking that their troubles should be settled with 
the landlords by more responsible courts than those given to 
Ireland under the act of 1881. Still the arrest of members of 
Parliament continued, until all England was shocked by the 
news of the death of Mr. John Mandeville, who was confined 
in prison and punished so severely that he died soon after 
coming out from exposure and lack of food. 

Mr. Parnell was at the same time charged in the London 
Times with having written certain letters advising and 



BRITISH EMPIRE. 93 

encouraging the execution of "the plan of campaign." Suit 
was brought against the Times denying the charges. By the 
early part of 1889 the case was ferreted out, and it was found 
that a man named Pigott had made up the letters by taking 
some of Mr. Parnell's correspondence and putting it into com- 
promising form. The Times apologized and was sued by Mr. 
Parnell for libel. A compromise was finally effected by the 
payment of £5,000 to Mr. Parnell. 

In 1888 there had been 733 evictions and 10,752 writs served. 
Yet the evictions continued into 1889 with renewed vigor. 
The commission under the Irish Land Act of 1881 had up to 
this time had 197,658 applications for adjustment of fair rents, 
and 147,112 had been disposed of. Over 7,000 cases had been 
settled on one side, and rents had been reduced nearly twenty 
per cent. Evictions continued, however, with unabated se- 
verity. 

Mr. Balfour, chief secretary for Ireland in 1890, proposed a 
bill to take the place of the Ashbourne Act. The principle of 
the law is that the state advances the entire purchase money, 
paying the landlord in a special government stock of two and 
three eights per cent interest and the tenant paying in a 
forty-nine years' lease of four per cent. A guarantee fund is 
to be raised to guarantee safe payment to the extent of £33,- 
000,000r If this sum is ever loaned out, more is to be raised, 
so that the guarantee may always be equal to the whole 
amount of the advances outstanding. After long discussion 
the bill passed late in July, 1891. In the short time since its 
passage it has certainly had some salutary results, but nothing 
more can be said of it. 

In the year preceding its passage, the great number of 
evictions on the estate of Mr. Smith-Barry in Tipperary 
began to attract the attention not only of England but of the 
United States. The whole town of Tipperary finally "boy- 
cotted" Mr. Smith-Barry and left his estate. Messrs. O'Brien 
and Dillon, both members of Parliament, were arraigned for 
trial on the charge of inciting the people to lawlessness, but 
they escaped before the trial came off, and, forfeiting their 
bail, they fled to France on a yacht, and thence to America. 
They bad hardly arrived, however, when the divorce suit of 
Captain O'Shea from his wife on a charge of adultery with Mr. 



94 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

Parnell was won by the plaintiff, November 1 7, 1890, and public 
opinion turned against Mr. Parnell. In the early part of 1891 
the two Nationalists left America and served their term of six 
months' imprisonment. When they were, liberated, on the first 
of August, they denied Parnell and joined the " split " of the 
Irish Nationalists that had been slowly growing under Justin 
McCarthy's leadership since the beginning of the year. This 
break in the Irish party caused much trouble during the 
winter of 1890-91. Mr. Gladstone turned against Parnell, and 
the priesthood did the same. Charges were made against the 
Gladstonians for trying to bribe him by offers of cabinet 
positions in the next Liberal cabinet, if he would keep out of 
politics for a time until the scandal connected with his name 
had blown over. He was, however, elected leader of the 
Parnellite party (what there was remaining of it) and tried to 
regain his power. The McCarthyites were, however, gaining 
in strength, when on the 6th of October, 1891, he suddenly 
died. Since then the Parnellites have been fast falling away 
and the McCarthyites and followers of Redmond now hold 
the Irish power in the House. 

On the 14th of February, 1893, Mr. Gladstone introduced a 
bill "to amend the future government of Ireland." The bill 
provided for a Chamber of 103 members returned by univer- 
sal suffrage, and a Legislative Council of 48 members elected 
by voters having £25 income. The veto power, though exer- 
cised by the viceroy, was also to be exercised by the sovereign 
of Great Britain. The bill passed the House of Commons in 
August, 1893. It then went to the House of Lords and was 
almost immediately voted down by an overwhelming major- 
ity on the 8th of September. 

During February, 1894, reports went abroad that Mr. Glad- 
stone was about to resign the premiership on account of cata- 
racts in his eyes. This was made a fact when, March 3, the 
queen summoned Lord Rosebery and he accepted the office of 
prime minister. The vital question of the hour being • the 
Home Rule Bill, considerable interest was aroused by the 
words of the prime minister spoken on March 12, to the effect 
that the question of Home Rule for Ireland must wait until it 
could carry an English majority in the House of Lords. 

The immediate rejection of the Home Rule Bill by the 



BRITISH EMPIRE. 95 

House of tiords, after so many months of discussion in the 
Commons, led to some comments as to the extinction of the 
Upper Chamber and to some discussion on the subject. This 
has, however, not up to the present produced any results, ex- 
cepting the fact that it marks another step towards the sup- 
pression of unelective legislative chambers. 

In 1854 a department for the colonies was instituted and the 
secretary of state for the colonies was put at its head. There Colonies, 
is also a secretary of state for India and an office of the crown 
agents for the colonies where the business of crown colonies is 
largely transacted. Besides these there are other offices of 
high commissioners for South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, 
etc. 

Through these offices the colonies are governed more or less 
directly as the colonies themselves are less or more inde- 
pendent of the mother-country. In all cases a governor, or 
resident ruler, is appointed by the crown, and the powers of 
each colony vary as the legislative and executive authority 
granted them is great or small. The great majority have two 
bodies of government : (1) an executive body or council — 
corresponding to an Upper House — which is appointed by the 
crown, and (2) a legislative body, or council or assembly, 
partly composed of members appointed by the crown and 
partly elective. There are, on the one hand, a few colonies — 
Victoria, Cape Colony, South Australia, Tasmania — which 
elect both Houses themselves and have responsible executives ; 
and on the other hand there are several which are either only 
military stations— St. Helena, Gibraltar — or colonies in a re- 
stricted sense, lying partly under the supervision of Great 
Britain — Cyprus, New Guinea, South African dependencies, 
and some of the Pacific islands. 

The colonial governor is the direct representative of the 
queen. He transmits personal matters to the crown from his 
colony ; he has many of the prerogatives of a ruler — granting 
pardons, rights of marriage, and warrants for state expendi- 
ture, convoking and proroguing of the colonial legislature, 
the power of veto, etc. On the other hand, he cannot involve 
the colony, and therefore Great Britain, in war; and he is 
obliged to refer certain matters of policy and government to 
the colonial office at London. 



96 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

The executive council is composed in most cases of coun- 
cilors who are members by virtue of their oflBce in the colony, 
or members appointed by the crown — official and unofficial 
members. In a few cases they are supposed to resign when 
they have lost the confidence of the legislative assembly. In 
some cases they are removable by the governor and in all 
cases they are removable by the crown ; finally, in still 
other cases the governor has the right of provisional appoint- 
ment. All members can be suspended by the governor for a 
limited period. The duties of the executive council are to 
advise the governor, it being made impossible for him to act 
without its advice in most cases. 

The legislative councils, or assemblies, are also largely un- 
der the crown. Some are partly elective, but all contain a 
small portion of members holding their seats by virtue of 
other offices held under the colonial government. The presi- 
dency belongs to the crown to nominate, though it is gener- 
ally regulated by seniority of membership. The duties of the 
legislative assembly are to initiate and discuss laws for the 
colony, though all financial bills originate with the governor. 
Where there is no legislative assembly all laws originate with 
the governor. He also retains the right of veto, and behind 
him the crown retains the same privilege, which can be 
exercised at any time. 

The colonies therefore at present have direct connection 
with the central government in every case. It has of late 
years been a much discussed question whether they ought not 
to be joined in groups. This has to some extent obtained in 
some parts of the world. The Dominion of Canada now 
embraces all possessions on the North American continent. 
There is a prospect that the South African colonies will con- 
stitute a similar dominion at no distant date. The Australian 
Federation is at present most interesting and requires more 
careful attention.* 

In 1887 a conference composed of representatives of the 
colonies met at London to discuss colonial commercial legisla- 
tion. It had only the right of discussion, and, being the first 
attempt of its kind, it is only interesting as showing, perhaps, 
a tendency to unite at stated periods in the future for the 

* See Australia. 



BRITISH EMPIRE. 97 

purpose of bringing the colonies and the mother-country into 
a closer union. The proceedings were largely in relation to 
new systems of tariff, post, telegraph, and transportation.* 



* In order to save space and classify the many British colonies, the plan 
has been adopted here of tabulating the British colonial possessions in a 
table in the appendix. It is important to notice that in many cases areas are 
only estimated, it being quite impossible to be accurate, as much of the 
country has never been trodden by white man. Likewise populations 
must be given in general figures. The table also is imperfect in parts, the 
dates of British acquisition being in some cases so far back in the eigh- 
teenth or seventeenth century that it is not necessary in this place to 
follow them. 



CANADA. 



Governor-General, 



The Earii of Aberdeek. 



RULERS SINCE 1800. 

Upper and Lower Canada 1791-1841 

United Canada 1841-1867 

Formation of the Dominion 1867 

Lord Monck, governor-general. 1867-1868 

Lord Lisgar, governor-general 1868-1872 

Earl Dufferin, governor-general 1872-1878 

Marquis of Lome, governor-general 1878-1883 

Marquis of Landsdowne, governor-general 1883-1888 

Baron Stanley of Preston, governor-general 1888-1893 

The Earl of Aberdeen, governor-general 1893- 

PRIVY COUNCIL. 

Premier and President Sir J. Thompson 

Minister of Public Works J. A. Ouimet 

Minister of Customs Mackenzie Bowell 

Minister of Militia and Defense J. C. Patterson 

Minister of Agriculture A. R. Angers 

Minister of Finance G. E. Foster 

Minister of Justice Sir J. S. D. Thompson 

Minister of Marine and Fisheries Sir C. H. Tupper 

Minister of the Interior T. M. Daly 

Minister of Railways and Canals J. Haggart 

Minister without portfolio Frank Smith 

Secretary of State J. Costigan 

Postmaster-General Sir A. P. Carou 



TABLE OF STATISTICS. 



Province. 


Area. 


Pop. 


Capital. 


Dom. 
Sen. 


Dom. 
H. C. 


Prov. 
Coun. 


Prov. 
H.A. 


Prince Ed. Isl'd 

Nova Scotia 

New Brunswick 
Quebec 


2,000 

20,550 

28,100 

227,500 

219,650 

64,066 

382,300 

2,371,481 


109,088 

450,523 

321,294 

1,488,586 

2,112,989 

154.742 

92,767 

99,722 


Charlottet'n 

Halifax. 

Fredericton. 

Quebec. 

Toronto. 

Winnipeg. 

Victoria. 

Regina. 


4 
12 
12 
24 
24 
3 
3 

2 


6 
21 
16 
65 
88 
5 
6 

4 


13 
15 

18 
24 

21 


30 
38 
41 
65 


Ontario 


88 


Manitoba 


35 


Brit. Columbia.. 

Territories and 

Arctic Islands 


27 


Total 


3,315,647 


4,829,411 




84 


211 


91 


324 



CANADA. 

Canada constitutes the northern border of the United States 
from Puget Sound along the forty-ninth parallel of latitude, the 
Lake of the Woods, the Great Lakes, and the St. Lawrence 
Kiver to the Atlantic Ocean. With the exception of Alaska, 
Newfoundland, Labrador, and Greenland, Canada now includes 
the entire continent of North America north of the line 
already mentioned. The Dominion formerly constituted an 
Upper and a Lower Province, Nova Scotia, and New Bruns- 
wick. By the British North America Act of July 1, 1867, the 
provinces were united and a constitution adopted. Two years 
later large tracts of land were purchased from the Hudson 
Bay Company. In 1870, July 15, Manitoba became a member 
of the government, and the next year saw the admission of 
the entire province of British Columbia. On July 1, 1873, 
Prince Edward Island was admitted, and only Newfoundland 
remained outside the union. Ottawa is the capital of the 
Dominion with a population of 44,000. 

The government is conducted under a constitution founded 
on the system employed in Great Britain, and the queen has 
the power of appointing the viceroy, who with an elective 
Parliament administers the government. 

The name Canada originally applied to a strip of territory 
running some 1,400 miles east from Lake Superior to Labra- -^^^^^^ 
dor with a width of 200 to 400 miles. This was then the only 
inhabited part of the great territory acquired by England. In 
1791 this was divided into Upper (the western portion) and 
Lower (the eastern portion) Canada. Upper Canada had be- 
come so populated with royalist fugitives from the American 
colonies that they at last outnumbered the French settlers and 
vigorously opposed the French systems in force in the eastern 
part of the province, and it was owing to this that the divi- 
sion was made. The separation lasted until 1841, when the 

99 



100 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

two colonies were again united. Each province had its Parlia- 
ment, lieutenant-governor, and constitution, as regular colo- 
nies of the British Empire. 

Prior to the War of 1812 in the United States, the two prov- 
inces came into conflict over the question of the French and 
English Church, which, forgotten during the war, broke out 
stronger than ever after the peace of Ghent. An English 
cathedral in Upper Canada, Protestant schools, etc., drew forth 
complaints from the French Catholics, and it gradually be- 
came evident that the French and English could not be equi- 
tably governed under the existing laws. Immigration also 
gradually put the English population beyond the French in 
1820. From these several causes troubles arose in both prov- 
inces, from 1825 to 1835, between the governors appointed by 
the crown and the assemblies elected by the people, in matters 
concerning taxation and money bills. It developed into a 
general uprising of the people to demand their right to govern 
themselves and to have authority in financial legislation. 

In Lower Canada the trouble between royalists and " Sons 
of Liberty " came^o a head in 1837, and open hostilities broke 
out in Montreal. There was some sympathy shown with this 
movement in Upper Canada, but there the royalist population 
was too large to allow an insurrection to take place. In Lower 
Canada the constitution was suspended for a time, the govern- 
ment changed, and after the trial of one hundred and eighty 
patriots and the hanging of some, the rebellion was sup- 
pressed in 1839. The result of the struggle was to bring about 
a union of the two Canadas under a reform constitution, which 
was eventually accomplished in 1841. United Canada had a 
life-membership Senate and an elective Assembly. 

In Canadian political history the period from 1841 to 1867 is 
one of growth toward a union of all the British possessions 
in North America. Those colonies known as the Maritime 
Provinces — Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward 
Island — soon realized the advantage to them in a union with 
the more important province of Canada, and on the other 
hand Canada saw the benefits to be derived commercially from 
the annexation of this extent of coast-line. 

The capital of Canada was transferred in 1841 from Kingston 
to Montreal, and in 1849 serious riots arose resulting in the 



CANADA. 101 

burning of the Parliament Houses on the 26th of April, over 
the question of compensation for those who had suffered losses 
during the recent rebellion. The riots were in reality caused 
by the hostility of the British and French inhabitants. One 
of the results was the establishment of two seats of govern- 
ment, one at Toronto and the other at Ottawa, Parliament 
sitting four years in each city alternately. Ottawa later on 
was made the capital of Canada and eventually of the Do- 
minion. 

In 1854 the reciprocity treaty between Canada and the 
United States was signed, and at its expiration in 1864 the 
action of the United States government in not renewing it 
was taken as a sign that it expected to annex Canada. This 
resulted in binding British North America somewhat more 
closely together. As early as 1859 the question of the union 
of the colonies was first broached. It was submitted to 
the provinces in the following year, with the result that 
Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island 
came to a convention in Quebec on the 10th of October, 
1864. A committee was appointed at the motion of John 
A. Macdonald to proceed to England in 1865 and consult 
with the imperial government in the matter. Finally the 
union was accomplished by the " British North America 
Act of 1867." Macdonald was made the first premier of the 
Dominion government and was knighted as a reward for his 
labors in bringing about the confederation. This man is the 
most interesting character in Canadian history since 1867. He 
held the office of premier from that time with a short break 
until his death in 1891, and the political history of these years 
is a record of his life. Parties in the new government divided 
on old questions, and the Conservatives became in the main 
the Protectionists, the Nationalists and the distinctly British 
following ; while the Liberals, under the able leadership of 
George Brown, put through a wider suffrage, favored reciproc- 
ity with the United States, and opposed the useless expendi- 
ture of money in government affairs. The disputes in regard 
to the claims of Americans who had suffered losses during the 
War of 1861, known under the name of "Alaba-ma Claims," 
resulted in the treaty of Washington in 1871 which settled the 
boundary questions in Vancouver and Alaska. It was in this 



102 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

year that a rebellion under Kiel in Manitoba was suppressed. 

In 1873 one of the greatest scandals in modern times came 
before the Dominion Parliament. A Liberal member charged 
Sir John Macdonald and his government with accepting 
bribes from Sir Hugh Allen and others, which were used for 
election purposes in return for a government grant for the 
construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway across the con- 
tinent. After a heated discussion in Parliament and an ex- 
amination, the government fell and Macdonald was forced to 
resign at the end of the year. In 1878 he was again premier 
in spite of the calumny that still attached to him. Riel, who 
had been pardoned in 1871, headed another rebellion in Mani- 
toba in 1885. These two uprisings were caused by the dis- 
satisfaction of the people of Manitoba and the Northwestern 
Territory over the inefficiency of the government administra- 
tion in these remote districts. The second rebellion was sup- 
pressed and Riel was captured and shot. 

This uprising and the heated discussion over the claims of 
the Catholic Church to lands given the Jesuits long before, 
created strong party feeling in 1886-87, and the history for the 
last few years has been one of party battles. The elections in 
1891, which immediately preceded the death of Sir John 
Macdonald, divided parties on the question of reciprocity, 
supposed tendencies toward annexation by the United States 
on the Liberal side, and on the Conservative side toward 
closer confederation of the Dominion with the empire by 
means of ** favored nation" clauses between the colonies and 
the mother-country. The death of Macdonald in the fall of 
the year brought forward another inquiry into the affairs of 
the government and the discovery of corrupt practices that 
implicated most of the members of the ministry. Mr. John 
J. C. Abbott was selected by the viceroy to form a government 
at the end of 1891 on a more liberal basis, and his unimpeach- 
able integrity was sufficient to maintain the administration 
until 1893. In that year the Earl of Aberdeen was appointed 
by the queen governor-general of Canada, and he made Sir 
J. Thompson his premier. 

The constitution of Canada is embodied in the British North 

Constitu- America Act of 1867, supplemented by sundry amendments of 

^^o'^- the Dominion Parliament of 1868, 1872, 1874, 1878, 1886, all of 



CANADA. 103 

which have received the signature of the crown. The govern- 
ment is in the hands of the queen, the governor-general, the 
privy council, two Dominion Houses of Parliament, and the 
legislative houses of the different provinces. 

DOMINION. 

The legislative bodies for the whole of Canada are the 
Senate and the House of Commons, which are prorogued and ture. * 
dissolved by the governor-general. They must both meet 
once a year ; their prerogatives cannot exceed those of the 
British House of Commons but may be modified by what is 
termed a Canadian Act, which is a law passed by the Domin- 
ion Parliament and signed by the governor-general and the 
queen. 

The Senate is composed of about eighty members. They are 
nominated for life by the governor-general, and the require- 
ments for candidacy are that they shall be thirty years of age, 
born or naturalized citizens residing in the provinces from 
which they are appointed, and possessing property to the 
value of $4,000. They may resign their office by not main- 
taining the provisions under which they are appointed. 

The House of Commons is elected by a somewhat limited 
suffrage. Electors must be twenty-one years of age and have 
property valued at $300, $200, or $150 respectively, in cities, 
towns, or country, or property yielding an income of $20 a year. 
In the case of fishermen $150 total valuation of property is 
sufficient qualification. The membership of the House at 
present is 211. Members have a salary of $10 per day during 
the session. 

A governor-general nominated by the queen is the execu- 
tive. He is commander-in-chief of the army and navy ; he 
has all the powers and functions under the Act of 1867 which 
belonged to any of the lieutenant-governors of the two Can- 
adas. Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick before, and these can- 
not be denied him by any act of the Dominion Parliament. 
Whatever power the British Parliament delegates to him in 
the future is also final. He holds office for five years unless 
recalled. 

The governor-general is assisted in the executive functions of 
the Dominion government by a privy council composed of 
members appointed by himself. They include in all about fifty 



Executive. 



104 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

men, being made up of the cabinet of fourteen, of six judges, of 
certain members of both Houses and both parties, of the high 
commissioners of Canada in London, and of the lieutenant- 
governors of Manitoba, New Brunswick, and Quebec. 
There is a Supreme Court at Ottawa which is a court of ap- 
judiciary. peal for the Dominion ; and a superior court in each province, 
besides county courts. The judgeships are under the appoint- 
ment of the governor-general. Vice-admiralty courts are also 
carried on in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Ed- 
ward Island. 
There is a force of two thousand British troops at Halifax, 

Army and and besides this the male citizens of the Dominion are liable 
Navy. 

for military service not to exceed sixteen days a year in time 

of peace. This force amounts to about 36,500. The navy of 

Canada is supplied by the imperial government in London, 

which maintains all coast defense. 

PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT. 

Each province of the Dominion has a lieutenant-governor 
appointed by the governor-general and a parliament of its 
own. In Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New Bruns- 
wick, and Quebec there are two legislative chambers with a 
responsible ministry. Ontario, Manitoba, British Columbia, 
and the Northwestern Territories have each a single legisla- 
tive assembly, and the first three have responsible ministries. 
The provinces have power in local matters and local finance 
when no collision exists with the Dominion Parliament, but 
the distinction of prerogatives is very closely drawn. 

Perhaps the most important question of the year in Canada 
has been the congress held at Ottawa in the summer of 1894, 
called the International Conference. This conference grew 
out of an expedition made by Honorable Mackenzie Bowell to 
Australasia, a short time ago, to study the situation and possi- 
bilities of communication between the British colonies in 
North America and in Australasia. The conference assembled 
on the 28th of June. Besides Canada the following colonies 
were represented : Queensland, Victoria, New South Wales, 
South Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, and Cape Colony, 
besides the imperial government. 

The principal object of the congress was to discuss a 
closer connection of these two great branches of British 



CANADA. 105 

colonies, both physically as regards steam and rail power, and 
financially as regards special tarifi* arrangements between 
particular colonies. As regards the first, it was agreed that 
the congress recommend the laying of a Pacific cable from 
Vancouver to Australia. The financial and commercial ques- 
tions are much more difficult of solution, owing to the differ- 
ent tariff laws of the different colonies, and the "favored 
nation" clauses in their treaties with other nations. There 
are other difficulties in the way of such an arrangement, 
which come from the fact that all the Australasian colonies 
are more or less rivals of one another and do not naturally 
take to a plan for mutual benefit. 

The whole conference was much of the same style and had 
much the same purpose as those held in Australia in recent 
years, and they all tend toward the closer federation of the 
British colonies for mutual benefit and defense. Such con- 
ferences accomplish but little in themselves, but they act as 
mouthpieces for the expression of this now very general view 
of the British colonial question. 



CHILE. 



President, 



Jorge Montt. 



MINISTRY. 



Minister of the Interior P. Montt 

Minister of Foreign Affairs V. B. Viel 

Minister of Justice and. Instruction F. Pinto 

Minister of Finance A. Vial 

Minister of War J. Orrego 

Minister of Industry and Public Works V. D. Larrain 



TABLE OF STATISTICS.* 



Province. 



Magallanes... 

Chiloe 

Idanquihue . 

Valdivia 

Arauco 

Cautin 

Malleco 

Biobio 

Concepcion.., 

Nuble 

Maule 

Linares 

Talca 

Curico 

Colchagua ... , 
O'Higgins...., 

Santiago 

"Valparaiso .. 
Aconcagua.. 
Coquimbo .... 

Atacama 

Antofagasta. 

Tarapaca 

Tacna 



Total. 



Area, 8q. M. 



75,292 
3,995 
7 823 
8,315 
4,248 
3,126 
2,856 
4,158 
3,535 
3,556 
2,930 
3,488 
3,678 
2,913 
3,795 
2,524 
5,223 
1,637 
5,840 
12,905 
43,180 
60,968 
19,300 
8,685 



293,970 



Population. 



2,873 

78,522 

72,426 

70,064 

77,667 

36,982 

63,329 

122,729 

218,815 

157,349 

127,650 

115,646 

140,734 

104,182 

160,123 

92,892 

378,781 

218.990 

156;636 

189,524 

67,205 

35,317 

47,313 

30,998 



2,766,747 



Capital, 



Punta Arenas. 

Ancud. 

Puerto-Montt. 

Valdivia. 

Lebro. 

Temuco. 

Angol. 

Angeles. 

Concepcion. 

Chilian. 

Can queues. 

Linares. 

Talca. 

Curico. 

San Fernando. 

Rancagua. 

Santiago. 

Valparaiso. 

San Felipe. 

La Serena. 

Copiapo. 

Antofagasta. 

Iquique. 

Tacna. 



Rep. 



c 

OS 

> 
c 



8 



115 



* There are 40 senators. 



106 



CHILE. 

The republic of Chile lies along the western coast of South 
America from the southern boundary of Peru to Cape Horn, a 
distance of ii,600 miles, with a width of 40 to 200 miles. It is 
bounded on the north by Peru, on the east by the Argentine 
Republic, on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean. The 
government is a republic of twenty-three provinces and one 
territory having partial though not very extensive autonomy. 
Santiago is the capital with a population of 236,870. 

The territory occupied by Chile was in 1800 a part of the 
great Spanish colony in South America. The government of History 
the country from the Biobio River to Atacama was carried on ^^^^^ ^^°°' 
by a Spanish governor-general whose seat was at Lima, Peru. 
The rule of Spain here as elsewhere created two classes of 
society — the Spanish officials and the great body of natives. 
The former used the latter to serve their own ends, holding 
the country in a state of feudalism. In 1810, however, this 
system came to an end, and De Toro, Spanish governor at 
the time, was overthrown by the inhabitants. It was an 
opportune time. Spain was busy with the invasion of Napo- 
leon's army and could not attend to her distant colonies. In 
the fall of the year the inhabitants of Santiago set up a com- 
mittee of seven men to form a provisional government until a 
more stable one could be inaugurated, and thus Chile was the 
first of the South American governments to vindicate its in- 
dependence. In the following year a triumvirate was chosen 
by the people, and Juan Jos6 Carrera was put in command of 
the first native Chilean army. 

There was some fighting, in which the insurgents were on 
the whole successful. Yet after two years of comparative 
peace the new government weakened, and when the Spanish 
forces under Paroja came south in 1813 they met with little 
resistance. There were two severe battles between the royal- 

107 



108 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

ists and Carrera's troops, in both of which the Chileans were 
defeated. The aristocratic Spanish families again regained 
control and the independence of Chile was lost. 

In 1817 the harsh government and abuse of power on the 
part of the Spanish brought about a second insurrection, this 
time originating in the east under the encouragement and 
with the assistance of Buenos Ayres. The insurgents invaded 
Chilean territory and after a few unimportant engagements 
defeated the Spanish troops at Chacabuco. An immediate 
plan of organization was laid out and the new government 
was being formed when the Spanish again descended upon 
the country. But through the vigor of the revolutionists a 
surprise was effected and the royalist army completely annihi- 
lated. 

The independent government at the beginning of the second 
outbreak had made San Martin general of the Chileans, and 
he now became practically dictator of the new republic. After 
the final defeat of the Spanish he was superseded by General 
O'Higgins, who was made Supreme Director. The latter 
maintained order with great skill and did much to organize 
the new government, until, in 1823, he was killed while sup- 
pressing a riot in Santiago. 

One of the most influential characters in the history of 
these years was a Scotchman named Lord Cochrane, who 
with a small body of his countrymen administered not only 
the naval department, but by his courage and tenacity helped 
to organize the entire civil, legislative, and executive depart- 
ments. He also guided the popular sentiment to aid Peru in 
her struggle for independence, and the first stability the new 
government attained was largely due to him and his follow- 
ers. But after the fall of O'Higgins and the appointment of 
General Freire as director a period of anarchy followed. 
Freire fell in 1826 and then ensued the administration of six 
directors and a triumvirate. One of these, General Pinto, 
drew up in 1828 and caused to be adopted the first constitu- 
tion. 

The constitution of 1828 had a very salutary effect on the 
country, and unlike the first attempts of other South Ameri- 
can republics, it brought the country into a peaceful condition 
and stimulated material commercial growth. This continued in 



CHILE. 109 

force until in 1831, on the election of Prieto as general director, 
a convention was summoned to reform it. The labors of this 
convention ended on the 25th of May with the adoption of a 
constitution that is in force at present. Prieto was the first 
president and held office for two years. During this time 
Chile took the first place among South American states. 
Prieto had one of the few internationally known men of 
South America for his premier, Portales, whose influence for 
good is to be found in all the branches of the new government. 

In 1843 General Bulnes succeeded to the presidency with 
Manuel Montt as premier, and with the exception of the riots 
in 1851 the growth of Chile was peaceful and uninterrupted 
until the war of 1879. Manuel Montt became president in 
1851, was succeeded by Perez ten years later, who in turn gave 
place to Errazuriz in 1871. Pinto's election in 1876 ended a 
long series of years which by the peace and the opportunity 
for growth they gave had placed Chile among the nations 
of the world whose credit stands high and whose word and 
claims demand respect. 

The constitution of Chile, adopted May 25, 1833, was 
modeled to a certain extent on the constitution of 1828 drawn ^°tfon!"' 
up by General Pinto. It shows a certain influence of the United 
States constitution, though in many particulars it differs from 
it. The government is in the hands of the people through 
their representatives at Santiago in Congress assembled. The 
government, however, is not strictly federal, as the provinces 
do not have legislatures, their i)lace being supplied by munici- 
pal governments which have authority in local affairs. 

The national Congress is composed of two houses, a Senate 
and a House of Deputies. The former has practically the Legisia- 
rights and prerogatives of the United States Senate and is 
composed of members elected indirectly by the provinces, 
there being one senator to every three representatives, which 
at present makes the Senate composed of forty members. 
Senators receive no salary and are obliged to show a property 
qualification equivalent to about $2,000 a year. The term is 
for six years and the elections are carried on by the same 
voters, though for senators the vote is by provinces. Electors 
are required to be twenty-one years of age and able to read and 
write. 



ture. 



110 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



Executive . 



Judiciary. 



Local gov- 
emmecit. 



The Chamber of Deputies has a membership of about 115, 
each deputy representing 30,000 inhabitants or fraction over 
15,000. They are elected for a three years' term, and must 
have a property qualification of $500 income. They must be 
at least twenty-five years of age, or twenty-one if married. 
Deputies receive no salary. Members of both Houses represent 
the nation at large ; both have the right to initiate bills, and 
to become a law a bill must receive the sanction of both Houses 
and the signature of the president. 

The president is the executive officer with the usual prerog- 
atives of that department of the government. His term is 
for five years and he is not eligible for reelection until the ex- 
piration of one presidential term after his own. He is chosen 
by indirect suffrage, the voters balloting for electors at the 
rate of three electors for each deputy. The official salary is 
$18,000. 

The president is assisted in the administration of the gov- 
ernment by a Council of State, somewhat after the pattern of 
the French constitution. There are eleven members who 
serve without salary, six being chosen by the Congress and 
five appointed by the president. They have certain duties and 
a distinct influence on the politics of the state through their 
power to impeach the president. Besides the Council of State 
there is the usual cabinet ; in this case containing the six min- 
isters of interior, foreign aflTairs, j ustice and public instruction, 
finance, war and navy, and industry and public works. 

There is a Supreme Court at Santiago which extends its in- 
fluence over the republic. Beneath this there are five courts 
of appeal and subordinate district courts in the different de- 
partments. 

The constitution of Chile differs from that of the United 
States in the government of its provinces. There are in all 
twenty-three provinces which are divided into departments 
and again into districts. Over each province the president ap- 
points an intendant and over each department a governor, and 
thus the two divisions of the federal state are centralized more 
closely than usual in a republican government. The governor 
appoints sub-officers over the districts ; but all municipal gov- 
ernment offices are elective. 

There is a law of December 30, 1887, that forbids the army 



CHILE. Ill 

to be greater than 5,835 men. These are at present distributed' Army and 
among two regiments of artillery, six of infantry, and three Navy. 
of cavalry. The National Guard, or body of militia, is about 
48,500 strong. 

The Catholic Church is the state church, though all creeds 
are tolerated. Civil marriage is the only one recognized by 
law. Education is free and conducted by the state. There is 
a university at Santiago and medium and primary schools in 
certain provinces. 

The Chilean constitution, like many others in South America, 
has not been followed with any degree of exactness. The presi- gince^^i^s. 
dent usually names his successor, and his executive power has 
often been extended even to include legislative functions. The 
cause of this is due to the fact that the old families of the 
country have almost absolute control of affairs, and in many 
cases the naming of a successor has resulted in the choice of 
the best man from this oligarchy. The finances of the coun- 
try have no reason for being in such a wretched condition as 
they have been in of late years. The rich deposits of the 
provinces of Tarapaca and Atacama have been a source of 
great wealth to the state, and yet the treasury is in a depleted 
condition. During the last few years the knowledge that the 
treasury was being used to further the schemes of the presi- 
dent, Balmaceda, that issues of unsecured paper were being ■ 
constantly made, and, finally, that the Congress was being de- 
ceived as to the specific uses to which the money was put — all 
these causes led to a demand in 1890 for an examination into 
the finances of the government. 

Previous to this, however, other causes added to the general -^^^ of 
dissatisfaction with. the government. In 1876 and earlier, isso-si. 
foreign capital began to pour into Chile, and as the govern- 
ment became more stable the number of foreign companies in- 
creased. This new stimulus to trade, supplemented by the 
activity of the Chilean race, spread business enterprises over 
Bolivian and Peruvian territory in the north, and in 1880 
many Chileans were working the mineral products of these 
two states along the Pacific coast. The war of 1880-81 between 
the three republics grew out of this spread of Chilean indus- 
try. A treaty had been made in 1866 between Bolivia and 
Chile concerning the till then unsettled boundary between 



112 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

the two countries. The line was to be the twenty-fourth par- 
allel of latitude, and citizens of Chile, who were already work- 
ing the newly discovered guano nitrates north of this in the 
territory ceded to Bolivia, were to be allowed to continue free 
from taxation of any kind. Bolivia, however, refused to allow 
this to go on in 1879, and issued a proclamation that the 
Chileans would be taxed in the future. The Chilean govern- 
ment, taking this as an infringement of the treaty, sent a 
fleet and an armed force to Antofagasta in February, and 
while skirmishing was going on it was discovered that Peru 
was preparing for war and that a secret treaty had been signed 
between Peru and Bolivia. Thereupon Chile declared war 
against both, April 2, 1880. By March, however, the war had 
been carried into Peru and the entire Bolivian coast-line w^as 
in the possession of the Chilean general, Baquedano. On the 
17th of January, 1881, Lima fell before the Chilean forces.^ 
Fighting continued until on October 20, 1883, peace was signed 
by which Peru ceded the province of Tarapaca to Chile. Tacna 
and Arica were to remain in Chile's hands for ten years, and 
then the inhabitants were to vote which country, Bolivia or 
Chile, they wished to be joined to, 110,000,000 being paid by 
the country they chose. This question was finally settled in 
1893 by a treaty between Chile and Bolivia, under which 
Bolivia becomes dependent upon Chile. The latter, however, 
agrees to equip and train the Bolivian militia and to give that 
country one seaport, either Mollendo or Arica. Chile assumed 
the debts of the guano nitrate districts of Peru in 1883, but no 
other indebtedness of the conquered country ; and she re- 
tained control of the Peruvian government for one hundred 
and eighty days until the treaty was ratified. 

The military activity of Chile during this war was remark- 
able, and although Peru went into it merely to assist 
Bolivia, the result was the temporary ruin of the country. 
Bolivia lost what small coast-line she had, but otherwise suf- 
fered no material loss compared to that of Peru. During the 
war, the United States government offered its services as medi- 
ator, but the result was only to increase diplomatic compli- 
cations, and after the war an inquiry was made into the causes 

* See Peru. 



CHILE. 113 

of the ill feeling at the intervention of the United States. This 
led to the exposure of conduct and procedure beyond the 
power of the United States ministers at Lima and Santiago. 
It now seems probable that this prolonged the hostilities. 

The expenses of this war, added to the causes already 
mentioned, left Chile in a precarious financial condition, 
and the methods of the president, Balmaceda, did not im- 
prove matters. The fact that he would in all probability ap- 
point his successor, thus covering his tracks, and that he had 
the appointment of his own ministers, allowed Balmaceda to 
go on from year to year issuing forced currency and unsecured 
paper. The currency depreciated, capital grew suspicious, and 
the uncertainty that precedes a panic prevailed. 

This was the state of affairs toward the year 1890. The 
senatorial party demanded a reform in the administration of 
the finances. Balmaceda refused to dismiss his ministers, who 
were in a minority in the Senate. Thereupon the Senate re- 
fused to vote the budget, and the revenue of the country was 
stopped. A deadlock ensued. Balmaceda tried to win over 
the officers of the army and to take control of the government 
at their head, but they would not follow him. Then he tem- 
porized and appointed a ministry of sound men with Prato at 
its head. But when Balmaceda tried to continue his peculiar 
methods of disposition of the public funds for his own uses, 
Prato opposed him and resigned on the president's refusal to 
remove one of his followers who was abusing public power. 

There was another deadlock, and then the Congress refused 
to vote the supplies for the maintenance of the army and navy. 
Things went on from bad to worse, and on the night of Jan- 
uary 6, 1891, a committee of the congressional party took 
charge of the navy and the fight began. Most of the army 
went over to Balmaceda. The fleet went northward at once 
to the province of Tarapaca, where the inhabitants supported 
them. Iquique was to be the center of operations, and as 
a preliminary step Pisagua was taken, lost, and retaken within 
a few days. The senatorial forces met the Balmacedan troops 
in the vicinity of Iquique and defeated them, sustaining a 
defeat themselves at Huara a short time after. Within the 
month, however, the senatorial party had the control of the 
whole province. A delay now ensued owing to the lack of 



Revolution, 



114 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

arms and ammunition. Tlie revolutionists applied to the 
United States, but the steamer Itata^ fitted out tliere with 
supplies, was captured and brouglit by the United States gov- 
ernment, as containing contraband of war. 

Meantime Balmaceda had named as his successor to the 
presidency, Vecuma, and an election under the strict supervi- 
sion of the government resulted in a majority of votes for 
him. In August, when the fight began in the vicinity of 
Valparaiso, he fled from the country. Valparaiso was taken 
eventually and the forces of Balmaceda annihilated ; Balma- 
ceda himself was obliged to fly, and later committed suicide. 
One of the senatorial party and a senator, Jorge Montt, with 
two others, were made a committee to direct the provisional 
junta during the ensuing elections, and Montt was soon elected 
president. 

The reorganization of the new government has been a diffi- 
cult matter and is hardly completed yet. The financial system 
had received a severe shock, and such disturbances as the at- 
tack on the American seamen of the warship Baltimore have 
made the work of the new government still more difficult. On 
the whole, the country is greatly benefited, and the victorious 
revolutionists have been universally recognized by foreign 
governments as the government of Chile. 

After the country had settled down, the government as con- 
ducted by President Montt was a combination of all parties, 
the attempt being to give up ideas of retaliation and re- 
venge, and thereby win the good-will of the Balmacedists, as 
well as retain the support of the senatorial party. The natural 
result was a tendency toward conservatism, which soon 
brought both complaints and opposition from the Liberals. 
Party distinctions were being drawn on these lines, but a 
general peace seemed to be coming in the near future, when a 
conspiracy was discovered in April, 1893. A mob attacked the 
government buildings and gained possession of arms, but the 
insurrection was short lived and the matter was soon over. 
Marshal law was declared and all those who did not escape 
from the country were captured and placed under arrest for 
trial. Two members of the conspiracy took refuge with the 
American minister, where they had the right of asylum. 
After some diplomatic correspondence with the government 



CHILE. 115 

at Washington, Minister Egan was asked to withdraw his 
protection from, the two men. One escaped and one was 
taken. Some of these conspirators were condemned to death, 
but the president finally commuted the sentence of Briceno, 
the leader, to imprisonment for Hfe, and this act of clemency 
did much to lead the Balmacedists to come out in favor of 
the new government. President Montt, in his message early 
in 1894, said that unfortunately owing to this outbreak he was 
unable to grant full amnesty to all those who had taken 
part in the Balmaceda revolution, as he had hoped. But 
it appears now that the country is settling down to peace and 
concord again. 



CHINA. 



Emperorj 



Kwang-Seu. 



RULERS SINCE 1800. 

Kea-King 1795-1821 

Taou-Kwang 1821-1850 

Heen-Fung 1850-1861 

Tung-Che 1861-1875 

Kwang-Seu 1875- 

HEADS OF DEPARTMENTS. 

Civil Administration President, Chan g-chih- wan 

Finance President, Foukoun 

rprPTYinninls PrP<5ldPnts i Koun-Kang (Manchu) 

Leremomals ^^^^^^^^^^iLi-Houng-tsao (Chinese) 

"War President, Olehopow 

Tnstlop Presidents I Kouei'heng (Manchu) 

•^ "^^^^® Presmems | goun-yw-wen (Chinese) 

Public Works Presidents I Sung-Kouei (Manchu) 

±'UDiic worKs ■^^®®^*^®^^^ I Soun-Chia-nai (Chinese) 

Foreign Affairs President, Prince Ching 



TABLE OF STATISTICS. 



JProvince. 

China Proper : 

Chili 

Shangtung 

Shansi 

Honan 

Kiangsu 

Nganhwei 

Kiangsi 

Chehkiang 

Fukienand Formosa 

Hupeh 

Hunan 

Shensi 

Kansu 

Szeehuen 

Kwangtung and Hainan 

Kwangsi 

Kweichow 

Yunnan 

Total, China Proper 

Dependekcies : 

Manchuria 

Mongolia 

Tibet 

Jungaria 

East Turkestan 

Grand total, Chinese Empire 



Area. 


Population. 


58,949 


17,937,000 


65,104 


36,247,835 


56,268 


12,211,453 


65,104 


22,115,827 


44,500 


20,905,171 


48,461 


20,596,288 


72,176 


24,534,118 


39,150 


11,588,692 


53,480 


25,790,556 


70,450 


33,365,005 


74,320 


21,002,604 


67,400 


8,432,193 


125,450 


9,285,377 


166,800 


67,712,897 


79,456 


29,706,249 


78,250 


5,151,327 


64,554 


7,669,181 


107,969 


11,721,576 


1,337,841 


385,973,349 


362,310 


7,500,000 


1,288,000 


2,000,000 


651,500 


6,000,000 


147.950 


600,000 


431,800 


580,000 


4,219,401 


392,653,349 



116 



CHINA. 

The empire of China occupies the eastern part of Asia from 
Siberia to Hindostan and India. It is bounded on the east by 
the Pacific Ocean and tlie Sea of Japan, on the south by Hin- 
dostan, Burmali, Siam, and Indo-China, on the west by the 
Himalayas, and on 
the north by Rus- 
sian Siberia and 
Russian Turkestan. 
China is an abso- 
lute monarchy. The 
capital is Peking. 

Keen-Lung, who 
abdicated in favor 
of his son Kea-King 
in 1795, was one of 
the exceptional rul- 
ers of China. He 
was a student and 
a general, and was 
always busy with 
political schemes 
and conquests. Kea- 
King, on the other 
hand, was incom- 
petent and only oc- 
cupied with his 
pleasures and pas- 
sions. With the be- 
ginning of his reign 
the troubles between China and the English East India Com- 
pany commenced, which led to the opening of China and the 
Chinese ports to the rest of the world. Complaints from the 




History 
since 1800. 



117 



118 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

representatives of the company against the Chinese mandarins 
for tlie treatment they received led in the early years of the 
century to the sending of a commissioner from England on 
an embassy to the court of Peking. He was well received by 
the emperor, but he found it impossible to gain any guarantee 
that the English merchants would be protected by the im- 
perial government. In 1816, the severe treatment of English- 
men still continuing, Lord Am.herst was sent on a second em- 
bassy, but like the former attempt this failed, owing to the 
unwillingness of the ambassador to acknowledge the sover- 
eignty of the emperor over the English crown, it being the 
theory of China that the emperor is the sovereign of the 
world. On the death of Kea-King in 1820, therefore, the re- 
lations between England and China were very much strained, 
and the empire was in a weak condition, owing to the insur- 
rections in several provinces. The imperial guards were de- 
feated on all sides by the insurrectionists. There had been a 
hope that the new monarch, Taou-Kwang, would introduce a 
more vigorous policy and certain much needed reforms in the 
provincial governments, but this was disappointed. Three of 
the provinces, Formosa, Kwangsi, and Honan, arose in open 
rebellion. Different societies of reform hostile to the Tsing 
dynasty began to grow too strong for the government. 

This state of affairs existed when, in 1834, the British gov- 
ernment took control of the East India Company, its monop- 
oly having expired. Lord Napier was at once sent to Canton 
to take charge of British interests there. He found it impos- 
sible either to secure a guarantee of protection from the im- 
perial government or to change the treatment which English 
subjects received at the hands of the mandarins, and shortly 
after his arrival he died of fever. 

The trouble seems to have centered on the opium trade. 
Englishmen carried on a business of selling opium, and the 
authorities of China, having long ago learned its effect on the 
inhabitants, tried to prevent the sale of the drug. To accom- 
plish this, one of the most brilliant Chinamen of modern 
times. Commissioner Lin, was sent to Canton. He forced the 
English merchants to give up over twenty thousand chests of 
opium and had them destroyed, whereupon the English gov- 
ernment declared war against China in 1840. 



(CHINA. 119 

Chinese troops were no match for English soldiers. They 
have a bravery that keeps them at their posts until they fall, 
but the arms at their command were powerless against the 
English rifles, and the government working through its end- 
less agencies and departments could not compete with Sir 
Hugh Gough's tactics. The result was that after losing some 
of their principal ports, the Chinese government signed a 
peace ceding Hong-Kong to England and paying $6,000,000. 
But peace was not finally brought about until the English 
threatened Nanking, the chief city of Southern China. This 
led the Chinese government to finally cease hostilities, and 
the second peace opened the ports of Amoy, Foo-Choo, Ning- 
Po, and Shang-Hai to foreign trade, and forced China to pay 
$21,000,000 to England in 1842. This defeat of the ** celestial 
throne" seems to have set the dependencies of Cliina on all 
sides into insurrection. In the north, in the province of 
Kwangsi, the insurgents defeated the imperial troops several 
times, and at the height of the disturbances, in 1850, Taou- 
Kwang died and was succeeded by his son Heen-Fung. To 
the misfortune of China the new monarch proved himself in- 
ferior even to his father, and it was not long before the dis- 
content of his subjects took shape in another insurrection in 
the south against the Tartar rule. The rebellion was headed 
by a man named Teen-Tih, setting himself up as the head of 
the ancient house of Chinese emperors, who were overthrown 
in 1644 by the present ruling house of the Manchu dynasty of 
Tsing. He soon gave place to the general, Hung-Seu-Tseuen. 
An organized rebellion followed, and Hung-Seu-Tseuen de- 
clared himself emperor of China. By 1852 the southern part 
of China was under the control of the insurgents, and so 
strong were they under their able leader that the imperial 
troops were powerless against them. 

Five years later an outrage committed by the imperial sub- 
jects against English merchants in Canton led to a second 
declaration of war on the part of England. The fighting was 
pushed forward with vigor under Sir M. Seymour. Canton 
fell into the hands of the English ; Lord Elgin in 1858 cap- 
tured the defenses of Taku, and the English advanced with a 
strong force toward Peking. Peace was again made by the 
Chinese government before the English had passed Tien-Tsin, 



120 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

but in less than two years Lord Elgin, this time with the 
assistance of a French force, again advanced on the capital, 
on the ground that the guarantees of the peace of 1858 had 
not been maintained. 

Encamped before the gates of the citj', the English could 
dictate, in 1860, the terms of a treaty that obliged China to 
pay another large indemnity and x>romise to maintain their 
guarantees. In the following year the emperor died and his 
five-year-old son, Tung-Che, was declared his successor under 
a regency of two dowager empresses. It was after the signing 
of the peace in 1850 that General — then Major — Gordon took 
charge of the Chinese forces, equipped them with European 
arms, and defeated Hung-Seu-Tseuen in a succession of bat- 
tles, until in the summer of 1864 banking fell into his hands 
and the rebellion came to an end. This was the signal for 
more vigorous measures against the smaller uprisings in other 
parts of China, and in 1873 the imperial government at last 
saw itself reinstated in power. IN'ow, for the first time, foreign 
ambassadors were admitted regularly to the emperor's pres- 
ence and diplomatic intercourse was oi)ened with foreign gov- 
ernments. 

Tung-Che died in 1875, on the 12th of January. The pres- 
ent emperor is the nephew of his predecessor and was only 
four years old on his accession in 1875. He took the name of 
Kwang-Seu, and a regency Tended in 1889j was appointed by 
the government, as in the former case, under two dowager 
empresses. 

The Chinese state Ls not to be regarded in the same light 
'menf. with other governments. The monarch is absolute where he 
has the power through military force to carry out his decrees. 
This is, however, theoretical rather than practical in several 
departments of the government. China, for example, clainLS 
absolute control over several neighboring countries where the 
ruling monarch is quite as absolute in his power, and where 
the Chinese sovereignty, therefore, amounts to nothing. 

That part of the government that approaches nearest to a 
Legsia- legislative body is a Grand Council called the Chun-Chi-Chu, 
composed of nobles of the empire, whose duty it is to meet 
when called together and pass judgment on measures pro- 
posed, or legislate as nearly as they can under such a govem- 



Govem- 



CHIXA. 121 

ment. The Han-Lin is another body of men who have to see 
that nothing is done contrary to the articles of the Ta- 
Tsing-Hweitien and the Sacred Book of Confucius. The 
former is a code of laws of the Tsing dynasty basing the gov- 
ernment on the authority of the family, and it takes the place 
of a constitution for China. The latter is the code of morals 
and religion. 

The emperor is all powerful in theory, and, w^ith few excep- 
tions within China itself, in practice also. He has the power Emperor. 
of appointment to all important offices, and he fills all the 
chief seats of honor and ornament ; he is the head of the 
Confucian religion ; he is the executive of the emi)ire and in 
this is associated with the Nei-Ko, the executive council of the 
empire. This is composed of two Manchus — the race of the 
imperial house — two Chinese, and two members of the Han- 
Lin. It may be said that in most of the high councils of the 
government Manchus and Chinese are equally represented. 
Under the emperor and the Nei-Ko there are seven different 
boards with a Chinaman and a Manchu at the head of each. 
These departments are : (1) The Board of Civil Api^oint- 
ments, (2) the Board of Revenue and Finance, (3) of Religion 
and Ceremonials, (4) of the Army, (5) of the Navy, (6) of Pub- 
lic Works, and (7) of the higher criminal courts. There is still 
another body called the To-Cha-Yuen, which is composed of 
about fifty censors who supervise the actions of the govern- 
ment and may present complaints to the emperor as often as 
they choose. One censor is obliged to be present at each of 
the naeetings of any of the boards. There are two presidents, 
one Manchu and one Chinese. 

The religions of China are : the Confucian, of which the 
emperor is the head ; Taoism, which is a variation of Bud- 
dhism ; and Buddhism itself. There are besides a large number 
of Catholics, and many of the mountain tribes are worshipers 
of Nalme. Education is almost entirely foreign except among 
the aristocracy. Popular education is very backward and 
many of the inhabitants have no knowledge of reading and 
writing whatsoever. In 1887 a College of Foreign Knowledge 
was opened in Peking, which increases in size from year to 
year. 

The Chinese army is of uncertain size. Of late many of the 



122 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



Army and 
Navy. 



History 
since 1875. 



Tonquin 
episode. 



European arms and methods have been introduced, and the 
army is much more effective now than when last pitted 
against Christian troops. The army of Eight Banners is said 
to consist of about 325,000 men. The national army is an 
enormous force of over 660,000 men and officers, with a cav- 
alry that is far inferior to European cavalry. 

The navy is divided into the Northern Squadron, the Foo- 
Choo Squadron, and the Shang-Hai and Canton Flotillas. 
Great improvement has been made in the war vessels, and 
they are equipped as follows : 

Ironclads 4 

War vessels 11 

Torpedo boats 8 

Gunboats 28 

Others 21 

72 
The opening of China to Europeans has not yet been com- 
pletely accomplished, but the last decade has seen a great in- 
crease in the foreign population resident there. This intro- 
duction of foreigners protected by their governments has 
caused several disturbances with the Chinese government 
among which the most important is the Tonquin episode be- 
tween France and the imperial government. 

Tonquin lies south of China along the coast extending as 
far as Siam. There had been for the greater part of the cen- 
tury a dispute going on between France and China over the 
right of control of this territory. China claimed a suzerainty, 
as she does over most of the neighboring countries, and 
France treated the country at first as an independent govern- 
ment. Military troubles in 1874 and earlier, and the increase 
of the French population in the country, led to hostilities and 
caused the French government to interfere to protect French- 
men. The forces of Annam were defeated, and then the Chi- 
nese government joined with them against the French. The 
question remained unsettled until 1883, when, after the con- 
tinued refusal of the Chinese government to allow France to 
interfere in the Tonquin, the French Chamber of Deputies 
voted 5,300,000 francs for the purpose of carrying on the war 
in the disputed country. 

The fighting went against the French for some time, and on 
May 19, 1883, before the city of Ha-Noi, Colonel Rivifere was 



CHINA. 123 

killed and his troops routed by the Annamites and the soldiers 
of the Black Flags— brigand troops of the country. The Paris 
Chamber passed another bill voting supplies, and a system- 
atic campaign was undertaken against the Annamites and the 
Chinese, with the result that at the end of the summer peace 
was restored by the Hue treaty. This secured control for the 
French in Tonquin, but the country was not subdued. In 
November, 1883, another difficulty arose, and the siege of Son- 
tag resulted in heavy losses on the part of the French, though 
they finally took the city. Nine million more francs w^ere 
voted by the French Chamber, but the success of the French 
remained doubtful. 

At this time there came a change in the Chinese govern- 
ment. Prince Kung was deprived of his office of sponsor to 
the young emperor, and Prince Chun was put in charge of the 
government in company with the empresses. This meant a 
more warlike policy. The Black Flags were changed from 
outlaws to allies of China. Li-Hung-Chang, undoubtedly the 
ablest man in China, was retained as viceroy of Pechili, and 
his assistance added to the Chinese strength. 

China took possession of the northern cities and prepared 
to check the French advance, still on the ground that Ton- 
quin was a dependency of China. The year 1884 resulted in 
no definite treaty settlements. The city of Foo-Choo was 
taken by the French and a war indemnity demanded, which 
China refused to pay. The Chinese government desired to 
refer the dispute to the president of the United States but 
France refused. A little later the defeat of the French at 
Tamsui infused new spirit into the Chinese troops. War w^as 
now declared. Canton was fortified, and toward the end of 
the summer both parties made ready in earnest. It was at 
this time that the English interfered to assist France, and the 
Chinese government threatened to cut off English supplies. 

The French government at the same time proceeded against 
the island of Formosa, but finding a large Chinese force there 
they were unable to accomplish anything. Troops began to 
pour into Annam in enormous numbers from China, and 
though they were defeated in several battles the French were 
unable to gain any material advantage. Finally in June, 
1885, peace was declared, the French having retracted their 



124 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

demands for an indemnity, thus giving the Chinese govern- 
ment an opportunity to make peace on honorable grounds. 
The peace is substantially as follows : Both parties agreed to 
cease hostilities at once ; France retains a protectorate over the 
independent sovereign of Annam, especially of the province 
of Tonquin ; she gives up all claim to Formosa, and China 
withdraws all claim to Tonquin ; both agree to bring about a 
treaty of commerce and friendship as soon as possible. 

Thus ended an extraordinary and useless war. There was 
an insurrection at Hue but it was put down by the French, 
and with the crowning of a new king of Annam under the 
French regime the struggle closed. In the following year a 
commercial treaty was arranged, though Li-Hung-Chang gave 
the French no commercial rights of moment within the Chi- 
nese territory. 

China has since been opened to the world by treaties signed 
with Portugal and the United States in 1887, which allow of 
trade in Chinese ports. In 1889 the young Emperor Kwang- 
Seu became actual ruler and the Empress Tse-Chi, who had so 
ably conducted the regency, retired into private life. During 
the last four years the building of railroads has been pushed 
slowly forward, and they promise to do much not only to 
open the country but to educate the people. 

The recent war between Japan and China over Corea is 
caused by the policy which not long ago was common to both 
War. the belligerents, but which both are giving up now, and 
Japan has almost entirely given up ; that is, the policy of 
keeping foreigners out of the country. Corea has been a dis- 
puted territory for some time, and Japan finally entered into 
an agreement with China that both governments should have 
part control through the king of Corea, but that neither should 
either annex the kingdom or try to control it. The sending of 
more troops into Corea by either power should be a casus 
belli. China early in 1894 broke this agreement and sent 
troops into Corea. Notice w^as given that this was an injury 
to Japanese interests there, but the latter government heard 
that more troops still were being sent there, and sent out 
accordingly a squadron of Japanese gunboats to watch events, 
after issuing an ultimatum. 

On June 27 this fleet met Chinese transports carrying troops 



Corean 



CHINA. 125 

to Corea off the island of Fou Fao, gave them battle, and 
sunk or dispersed them. War was now declared, and on July 
29, the Japanese having secured Seoul, attacked the Chinese at 
Asan, defeated them, and then gained control of the southern 
part of Corea. Since then the war has steadily gone against the 
Chinese. They were defeated at Ping Yang on September 15 
with great loss. These gave Japan control of all Corea, and 
on the 17th in a naval battle they gained control of the Yellow 
Sea. Preparations then began for attacking Port Arthur, the 
next important point on the road to Peking, and that strong- 
hold fell early in November. Peking is now threatened, and 
it is probable that a peace satisfactory to Japan will soon be 
concluded. 



COLOMBIA. 



President, 



Senob Dr. Don Rafael Nunez. 



GOVERNMENT SINCE 1800. 

Spanish New Granada 1811 

War under Bolivar 1811-1819 

Republic of Colombia 1819-1831 

Republic of New Granada 1831-1861 

United States of Colombia 1861- 

MINISTRY. 

Minister of Foreign Relations M. F. Suarez 

Minister of Finance C. C. Reyes 

Minister of Publiclnstruction L. Zerda 

Minister of War J. D. O. Comacho 

Minister of Interior J. M. C. Serrano 

Minister of Justice E. R. Barreto 

Minister of Commerce B. Bravo 

Minister of Public Works J. M. Goenaga 



TABLE OF STATISTICS. 



Department. 



Antioquia 

Bolivar 

Boyaca 

Cauca 

Cundinamarca 

Magdalena 

Panama 

Santander 

Tolima 

Total 



Area. 



22,316 
21,345 
33,351 
257,462 
79,810 
24,440 
31,571 
16,409 
18,069 



504,773 



Pop. 



470,000 
280,000 
702,000 
621,000 
569,000 
90,000 
285,000 
555,600 
306,000 



3,878,600 



Capital. 



Medellin. 

Cartagena. 

Tunja. 

Popayan. 

Bogota. 

Santa Marta. 

Panama. 

Socorro. 

Ibague. 



Rep. 



<£.S 



66 



Sen. 



27 



128 



COLOMBIA. 



Colombia is the most northern of the South American re- 
publics. It is bounded on the north by Costa Rica and the 
Caribbean Sea, on the east by Venezuela and Brazil, on the 
south by Ecuador, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. The 
country is a republic of nine states, but since 1886 these states 
have become departments controlled by governors appointed 
by the president. 



The federal govern- 
ment has much 
more control than 
is usual in a repub- 
lic. The capital is 
Bogota. 

Until 1811 Colom- 
bia was a part of the 
Spanish colonies in 
South America, 
and it included 
what is now Ven- 
ezuela and Ecua- 
dor. In 1811, how- 
ever , dissensions 
that had been long 
fermenting came to 
a head, and hostil- 
ities broke out 
against the mother- 
country. War con- 
tinued for upwards 
of thirteen years. Simon Bolivar, one of the greatest men 
South America has ever known, united the whole country 
under the title of the Republic of Colombia and made himself 

127 




Historical 
sketch. 



128 GOVERXMEXTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

the head. He was successful in the struggle for independence. 

In 1S29 Venezuela seceded from, the union, and was followed 
by Ecuador about a j^ear later. Since then its history to the 
present day has been one of the sudden rise of one or another 
of the popular leaders and his sudden fall. In 1832, the re- 
public having been formed, a constitution was promulgated 
and the country divided into eighteen departments — since 
then arranged into nine. The government was centralized 
under a president, and General Santander was the first to 
serve as such. He was unable to keep up with the factions 
and maintain the peace, however, and was superseded by 
Marquez, the head of the Opposition. Civil war came again 
in 1841, and some of the departments seceded from the repub- 
lic. In 1843 the country was again united under a new con- 
stitution, made by amending the old one. The standing of 
Colombia was greatly strengthened abroad during the follow- 
ing years, under the administration of Mosquera (1845-48). 
The debt was materially diminished, liberal ideas were intro- 
duced, and commerce advanced rapidly. Under the new 
administration of General Lopez, from 1849 to 1852, the ad- 
vance continued, culminating in the abolition of slavery in 
the latter year. 

Another change in the constitution was brought about in 
1853, permitting, among other things, any state to secede from 
the union. Antioquia and Panama at once took advantage of 
this and left the republic, and this soon led to civil war. 
Changes in the presidency at least once in two years, and the 
strife of rival factions followed, and the growth of the coun- 
try was retarded. During these years Mosquera was several 
times at the head of the government, and, finally, in 1861 he 
captured the capital Bogota, changed the name of the republic 
to the United States of Colombia, and eventually made him- 
self dictator. 

The power of the leader kept the country in peace until he 
was impeached and imprisoned. Civil war followed in 1868 
to 1870 and commercial growth was again at a standstill. 
Under General Salgar a bank was opened at Bogota, and the 
Panama Canal treaty was signed with the United States, in- 
volving the conditions under which the neutrality and com- 
mercial status of the canal were to be fixed. 



C0L03IBIA. 



129 



The wonderful resources of the republic have lain for years 
without any use having been made of them, partly because of 
the total absence of any facilities for transportation, and partly 
because of the constant civil wars. 

The present constitution was adopted in 1861 and revised 
after the revolution. The changes were largely in giving, in 
1886, much of the power formerly held by the states to the 
federal government at Bogota. In its details it resembles the 
constitution of the United States, though the power is more 
centralized. The departments have been allowed to retain 
many of their prerogatives in local matters, such as the regula- 
tion of their own finances, etc. 

The legislative portion of the government is composed of 
two Houses. The Senate contains twenty-seven members 
elected by the dex^artmental governments, each sending three 
to the House at Bogota. The senators must be Colombians 
by birth, at least thirty years of age, and having an income of 
$1,200 or more a year. 

The House of Representatives is elected by univei'sal suf- 
frage. A voter must be at least twenty-one years of age, able 
to read and write, or have an income of not less than $500 a 
year. For members no property qualification is necessary, but 
a candidate must be twenty-five years of age. There is one 
representative for every 50,000 inhabitants, which makes the 
number sixty-six at present. 

The executive is in the hands of a president, who is elected 
by a suffrage similar to that used in the election of rej)resenta- 
tives. Since 1886 the presidential term has been six years. A 
vice-president is chosen at the same time and for the same 
term, to serve in the president's place in case of his incapacity. 
There are also three officers chosen, one for each of the two 
years of the president's term, to fill his place in case neither 
he nor the vice-president is able to attend to his duties. 

The president has to assist him eight ministers who consti- 
tute a Council of State and are responsible to Congress for 
advice given the president. They hold portfolios and confer 
with the president as a cabinet. 

There is a military force of 6,500 men kept up by the Con- 
gress. The bill for its maintenance is passed annually and 
m^ay be changed as often. In time of war the president is 



Consti- 
tution o 



Legisla- 
ture. 



Executive. 



Adminis- 
tration . 



Army and 
Navy. 



Contempo- 



130 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

empowered to increase the force as circumstances may require. 

Thie religion of tlie republic is Catholic according to the 
constitution, but other creeds are tolerated. Education is 
carried on by means of 1,278 primary schools, several normal 
and technical schools, and universities. The higher schools 
are largely in Bogota. 

The Panama Canal was under discussion for many years 
before, in 1876, articles of agreement and grants were drawn 
rary events, up for the commencement of the work. The company was 
formed by Count Ferdinand de Lesseps and a French syndi- 
cate, who secured large loans from the French government to 
build the canal across the Isthmus of Panama, a distance of 
forty-six miles. In 1886 less than one third of the work was 
finished, 772,545,412 francs had been expended, and then De 
Lesseps failed to secure a loan of 600,000,000 francs more. In 
1889, when the company went into liquidation, work on the 
canal ceased, and the French civil courts appointed a provi- 
sional commission to examine and report on the condition of 
the affairs of the company. This commission reported that 
900,000,000 francs more would be required to complete the 
work. 

Under President Parra (1875-77) legislation was brought 
about to abolish religious education in schools where before 
Catholics had the control. This caused complaints from the 
Catholics in the south which led to open hostilities against the 
government. The revolt was soon quelled, but the sentiment 
against liberalism remained strong. 

The first terpa of Nuiiez's presidency (1879-81) was one of 
comparative peace. Laldera died at the beginning of his 
term, in 1882, and Otalora was appointed to fill his place. 
The fight between liberalism and conservatism again became 
strong ; the members of the Radical party joined the Con- 
servatives in a coalition against the Liberals to overthrow the 
government and the constitution. Colombian finances were 
in a wretched condition and furnished material for complaint 
against the government. An insurrection broke out. In the 
north, Barranquilla, Sabanilla, and Colon-Aspinwall were 
soon in the insurgents' hands, as well as Panama and Buena- 
ventura on the Pacific coast. 

The timely interference of the United States warships on 



COLOMBIA. 131 

the Caribbean and Pacific coast and the loyalty of the 
government generals saved all but Colon-Aspinwall, which 
was destroyed by the revolutionists. The battle of Calamar, 
July 1, 1885, decided the contest in favor of the government ; 
for though not absolutely defeated the revolutionists were dis- 
persed and discouraged. Peace was announced on the 5th of 
September, 1885. The result of the war was the reformed con- 
stitution. Nunez was elected president in 1886 and served 
until 1892, when he was again reelected. 



COSTA RICA. 

President, - - R. iGiiESiAS. 

MINISTRY. 

Minister of Foreign AflFairs, Justice and Worship, 

and Public Instruction M. J. Jimenez. 

Minister of Finance Dr. P. Volverde. 

Minister of War and Navy Rafael Iglesias. 

Minister of the Interior J. Vargas. 

Costa Rica is one of the five Central American republics 
lying between 8° to 11° 16^ north latitude, and 81° 40^ to 85° 89^ 
west longitude from Greenwich meridian. It is bounded on 
the north by Nicaragua and the Caribbean Sea, on the east by 
the Caribbean Sea, on the south by the republic of Colombia 
and the Pacific Ocean, and on the west by the Pacific. It is a 
republic of seven departments or divisions. San Jos6 is the 
capital with a population of about 20,000. 

The provinces of Costa Rica with the population of each 
are : San Jos6, capital San Jos6, 65,261 ; Alajuela, capital 
Alajuela, 53,087 ; Cartago, capital Cartago, 35,571 ; Heredia, 
capital Heredia, 3,084 ; Guanacaste, capital Liberia, 17,191 ; 
Punta Arenas, capital Punta Arenas, 8,114 ; Limon, capital 
Limon, 3,447. 

The total population is 213,785 and the area of the republic 
is 23,233 square miles. 

Costa Rica is one of the most advanced of Central American 
republics, owing to the fact that it has been less disturbed by 
'sketch.'*' internal wars. It was a part of the kingdom of Guatemala 
until in 1821 it separated with the other provinces from that 
government. Two distinct parties at once sprang up in the 
small state, one recommending union with Mexico, the other 
advocating an independent republic. The latter was finally 
victorious in 1824, and Costa Rica took its place among repub- 
lics, with its capital at San Jos6. 

In 1848, after more than a decade of peace, ex-President 
Carillo tried to instigate a revolution and force the govern- 

132 



Historical 



COSTA RICA. 133 

ment from the hands of his successor, Alfaro. The attempt 
was unsuccessful, but the miovement brought about the adop- 
tion of a new constitution which was followed by peace and 
commercial growth for a time. 

In 1850 President Mora began his long service of four terms. 
He carried the country through the Walker Rebellion in 
1856-57, and in 1859 was instrumental in introducing an 
amendment to the constitution whereby a representative 
chamber was given to Costa Rica, though the amendment did 
not go into effect until his successor, Monteleque, had entered 
upon his term of office. Monteleque having been in 1860 
overthrown and shot, peace and commercial growth were 
checked by a revolution. 

In 1872 General Tomas Guardia began a long administra- 
tion, which soon came to be virtual dictatorship. The con- 
stitution was practically void from 1878 until 1882, when Gen- 
eral Fernandez took control of affairs. His office ended in 1885 
at the close of the Central American war,* and General Soto, by 
virtue of his services during that struggle, became president. 
Since then Costa Rica has been in comparative quiet. The 
Panama Canal f controversy brought up arbitration with Co- 
lombia, and Mr. Cleveland, president of the United States, 
acted as arbitrator between Nicaragua and the republic in the 
great boundary dispute. The San Juan River was made the 
line and Costa Rica was given the right of navigation on its 
waters, except for ships of war. 

The constitution, originally adopted in 1859, has been sev- 
eral times amended in most of its clauses. It provides for a Consti- 
president, who has the usual prerogatives. The government ^"^lon. 
is, however, largely in his hands. At the last election there 
were twenty-six representatives in the Chamber. Besides the 
central government there is a governor appointed by the pres- 
ident in each province, and the cantons, into which the prov- 
inces are divided, are governed by municipalities elected by 
the people. At the head of each canton is an officer appointed 
by the president. 

The legislature consists of one Chamber of Deputies elected Leeis- 
by an electoral assembly for a four years' term, but one half of lature. 

* See Guatemala. 
fSee Colombia. 



134 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



Executive. 



Judiciary. 



Army and 
Navy. 



Contempo- 
rary 
events. 



the Chamber retires every two years. One deputy is elected 
for each 10,000 inhabitants or fraction thereof, if over 4,000. 

The president is elected by the same electoral assembly for a 
term of four years. He has the power of naming or renewing 
his ministers and the usual powers in foreign and domestic 
executive matters. He is not eligible for immediate reelection. 

There is a Supreme Court of Justice composed of eleven 
judges. They are elected by Congress every four years. These 
are divided into two courts of appeal each having three judges, 
and a court of five judges who constitute a Court of Cassation, 
and whose business it is to see that the laws are correctly ap- 
plied in all suits. 

Costa Bica has a standing military force of 31,824, but it is 
merely a militia composed of able-bodied men between the 
ages of eighteen and fifty who are obliged to serve. 

There is no navy that can be said to bear that name. 

The constitution guarantees tolerance to all creeds in re- 
ligion, but the Catholic is the state church, and |27,500 is 
annually voted to its support and to religious education. Ed- 
ucation in general is compulsory in primary studies. Besides 
these there were in 1886 several normal and other advanced 
schools started which seem to be very successful. There are 
three colleges in San Jos6 and the University of Santo Tomas, 
besides 201 primary and 80 private schools throughout the 
state. 

After the war in 1885 was over, the agitation for a union 
among Central American peoples still went on. Soto, on July 
6, 1888, issued a decree making all citizens of any of the 
Central American republics citizens of Costa Rica. There 
was a conference on September 15 on the subject, which came 
to no definite action. Another conference was held in San Sal- 
vador with a similar result. The election of Rodriguez in 
1890 was accomplished in a quiet and orderly way, and the 
question of the moment is the dispute in regard to Catholic 
instruction in the schools, there being a strong movement on 
foot to do away with all religious instruction. 

In March, 1893, a conspiracy was discovered by an informer 
who notified the president in advance. It was conducted by 
J. M. Gutierrez, who had been connected with other revolts 
and had returned to Costa Rica after being exiled by a procla- 



COSTA RICA. 135 

mation of amnesty issued by President Rodriguez. The con- 
spiracy was allowed to come to a head, it being discovered 
that the purpose was to seize the arsenal and overthrow the 
government. Gutierrez was to become dictator. The result 
was that the conspirators were caught in the act of treason 
and the sympathy of the country was not in the least turned 
from the existing government. 

The election in the early part of 1894 passed off quietly, and 
Iglesias assumed office on May 8. 



DENMARK. 



King, 



Christian IX. 



RULERS SINCE 1800. 

Christian VII 1766-1808 

Frederick VI 1808-1839 

Christian VIII 1839-1848 

Frederick VII 1848-1863 

Christian IX 1863- 

. MINISTRY. 

Minister of Finance, president Jacob B. S. Estrup 

Minister of Interior H. P. Ingerslev 

Minister of Foreign Affairs Baron de Keedtz-Thott 

Minister of War Col. J. J. Bahnson 

Minister of Marine Com. N. F. Ravn 

Minister of Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical Affairs A. H. Goos 

Minister of Justice and for Iceland J. M. V. Nellemann 



TABLE OF STATISTICS. 



Province. 



Copenhagen 

Islands of the Baltic. 
Peninsula of Jutland 
Faroe Islands 

Total 



Area. 



5,024 

9,743 

514 



15,289 



Population. 



312,387 

917,457 

942,361 

12,954 



2,185,159 



136 



DENMARK. 



The monarchy of Denraark is situated on the peninsula of 
Jutland, north of the German Empire. It is bounded on the 
north, east, and west by water — the Baltic lying to the east 
and the German Ocean to the west. On the south the duchies 
of Schleswig and Holstein form the boundary line. Copen- 
hagen is the capital of the kingdom with a population of 
812,387. 

At the Congress of Vienna, when Central Europe was re- 
organized as the Ger- 
man nation, the king 
of Denmark was 
made a member of 
the German Confed- 
eration with the 
right of three votes 
in the Diet, on ac- 
count of the fact that 
he held the duchies 
of Schleswig and 
Holstein, which were 
more or less thickly 
populated by G e r - 
mans. Holstein was, 
however, not so 
closely in touch with 
Denmark as the duchy of Schleswig, the intervening territory 
between it and Denmark proper. As the German states be- 
came somewhat more closely united, Holstein demanded with 
greater boldness the constitution that had been promised it 
some time before. 

Denmark had lost gradually most of her northern terri- 
tories and the government, in order to hold the southern 

137 




History 
since 1800. 



138 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

part, made the excuse that a new constitution was being pre- 
pared for the entire kingdom. But, as time went on, the 
incurable hostilities of the German against the Danish citi- 
zens grew so strong that in 1822 Holstein applied to Germany 
for assistance and admission to the Confederation. 

The revolutionary spirit that produced the popular uprisings 
in 1830 had its influence in Denmark as well as elsewhere, and 
most of the causes of political strife in the duchy since then 
may be traced in the contest of conservative monarchists 
with the men of liberal ideas demanding free press, free 
speech, increase of local governments, etc. 

In 1838 Christian VIII. became king in place of Frederick 
VI. It was the new king's policy to insure the possession of 
Holstein to Denmark, and to that end the use of the Danish 
language was made compulsory in the civil courts and local 
organizations of the duchy. But, in spite of his acknowledged 
liberality of ideas, this injured the king's cause, and the in- 
compatibility of the two races living together under Danish 
rule became more evident year by year. 

Christian VIII. died in January, 1848, and his son Fred- 
erick VII. succeeded him. It was a difficult time for a new 
king to enter upon office. In less than a month the liberal 
spirit began to appear all over Europe. Revolutions broke 
out on all sides, and Denmark became the scene of riots and 
demands of the populace for a more enlightened constitution. 

A new element in the politics of the country now appeared. 
Prince Frederick Augustenburg, the regular heir to the duch- 
ies of Schleswig and Holstein, put in his demand to have his 
rights acknowledged. Hostilities commenced and he was 
quickly subdued by Danish forces. The dispute promised to 
create trouble enough of itself, but now the German Diet, de- 
termining to annex both duchies, empowered Prussia to send 
an armed force to take possession. The undertaking was put 
in the hands of General Wrangel, who carried all before him 
and went as far as Jutland, where he forced Denmark to con- 
sent to an armistice, on the 26th of August. This Agreement 
of Malmoe gave the government of both duchies into the 
hands of two commissioners appointed by Prussia, two ap- 
pointed by Denmark, and one chosen by the other four. In 
May, 1849, the armistice expired and the war began again, 



DENMARK. 139 

continuing until the battle of Idstedt. Here the Schleswig- 
Holsteiners were defeated with great loss and the war practi- 
cally ended. 

A protocol, signed at London in 1852 by the great powers, 
settled the succession on Prince Christian von Gliicksburg, and 
as both he and the Duke of Augustenburg had claims to the 
duchies, the latter, on receipt of 2,500,000 marks, gave up his 
claims, including those of his sons, who though they gave no 
legal consent were nevertheless twenty-one years of age and 
made no objections. 

The history of Danish troubles, internal and external, from 
this time until 1866 are traceable to this dispute over the suc- 
cession in these provinces. On the death of Frederick Augus- 
tenburg, who had signed away his right of succession, his son 
Frederick disregarded his father's agreement and laid claim to 
the two duchies. In 1863 King Frederick VII. of Denmark 
died and Prince Christian von Gliicksburg was crowned at 
Copenhagen under the title of Christian IX. Augustenburg 
declared himself Frederick VIII. of Schleswig and trouble at 
once began between him and the new king. 

The German Diet on behalf of the German inhabitants in 
the two duchies assumed control of the government there and 
commissioned Hanover and Saxony to carry out the decree. 
Upon this the Danish government declared war on Schleswig- 
Holstein, counting on the assistance of France and England. 
But no such help was forthcoming, and Prussia and Austria 
joined forces to assist the other Confederation troops. War 
began in earnest and after severe fighting the Danneiuerk was 
captured — the belt of fortifications across the country at the 
southern boundary of Jutland. The siege of Diippel then be- 
gan. This is the strongest fortified place in Denmark and its 
capitulation in 1864 left Denmark at the mercy of the Prussian 
and Austrian troops.* Christian IX. thereupon ceded to the 
conquerors all his claims to Schleswig, Holstein, and the small 
duchy of Lauenburg. 

In two years Austria and Prussia came to blows over the 
government of the duchies, and the war of 1866, ending in 
Prussia's favor, gave the sole charge into Prussia's hands. 



* See Germany. 



140 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

Sclileswig and Holstein were annexed to the kingdom, of 

Prussia, Lauenburg liaving been bought of Austria before the 

war. 

The present constitution of Denmark was adopted in 1866 

Constitu- after the war with Prussia. It is a remodeled form of the con- 
tion. 

stitution of 1849 that grew out of the revolutions of that 

period. It is to be noticed, however, that several of the writ- 
ten clauses are not followed to-day, as for example the minis- 
try, which is legally responsible to the legislative houses, has 
not resigned, though for years it has had a minority in the 
lower and representative house. 

The legislative part of the government is vested in a Parlia- 
Legisia- ment (Rigsdag) and the king conjointly. The Rigsdag is 
ture. composed of two houses, the Folkething, or Lower House, 
and the Landsthing, or Upper House. The Rigsdag meets at 
Copenhagen, unless otherwise ordered, on the first Monday in 
October, at the summons of the king. The English Rules of 
Parliament are practically observed, for the furtherance of 
business. Either House may initiate measures, or present 
IDctitions, decisions, or reports to the king. The members of 
both Houses are free from arrest during the session, and they 
represent the entire country, not their respective constituents. 
They elect their own officers in each House and in case of dis- 
agreement meet in a body, choosing their own president then 
also. The sessions of both Chambers are public except when 
otherwise ordered by the king. 

The Landsthing is composed of sixty-six members, the 
number being fixed by law. Of these forty-seven are elected 
by the districts, twelve are nominated by the king for life 
from among actual or retired members, seven are elected from 
the city of Copenhagen, one from Bornholm, and one from 
Faroe. The seven Copenhagen delegates are chosen by elec- 
tors at the rate of one elector for each one hundred and twenty 
voters. Besides these there is an equal number of electors 
added from the citizens paying an annual tax of $1,200 or 
more. This body elects seven deputies. The forty-seven dep- 
uties are chosen in the districts by electors appointed by the 
towns and parishes, with a body of citizens added, who pay a 
certain amount in taxes annually. Candidates must have 
resided at least one year in the district from which they are 



DENMARK. 



141 



Executive. 



returned. The electoral menibers are chosen one half every 
four years. 

The Folkething is composed at present of one hundred and 
two members, or one for every 16,000 inhabitants. They are 
chosen by electors who must be thirty years of age, one year 
residents in their electoral district, men in good repute and 
neither in domestic service nor in receipt of any charity. 
Elections occur once in three years and candidates must be 
twenty-five years of age. 

The king is the executive of the kingdom, having also cer- 
tain legislative powers. His authority is very extensive and 
in practice it extends further than is strictly permitted by the 
constitution. He has the right of pardon, command of the 
army and navy, power to introduce measures and resolutions 
in the Rigsdag ; his consent is necessary to make a bill become 
a law, and in case he allows a bill that has passed both Houses 
to run over a session without his signature, it becomes void. 
He declares war, makes treaties, and appoints all the chief 
officers of state. He has supreme authority in the afliairs of 
the nation, is irresponsible, and sees that the law^s are ex- 
ecuted. He appoints and removes his seven ministers, who 
are responsible to the Chambers,* and to insure his irresponsi- 
bility the signature of one minister is required, besides his, 
on every bill before it can become a law. The king may pro- 
rogue the Parliament, but for only two months, when elec- 
tions must take place for a new one. He may convoke extra- 
ordinary sessions. 

The Council of State is composed of seven ministers appointed 
by the king, and every important measure is discussed in this 
body. The heir-apparent may take his seat in this council. 

The Supreme Court, or Rigsret, is at Copenhagen and has 
charge of the trial of ministers on charges preferred by the 
king or the Chartibers. There is an inner Sujoreme Court Judiciary, 
which with an equal number of members appointed by the 
Folkething has the highest authority, and its members can 
only be removed by its own authority. Inferior courts have 
not yet been introduced and trial by jury though provided for 
is only partially carried out. 

* In practice they are only responsible to the king as they do not resign 
on a vote of want of confidence. 



142 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

Almost the entire population belongs to the Lutheran 
Church. Education is compulsory between the ages of seven 
and twelve years, and the University of Copenhagen is the 
leading educational institution. 

Denmark is divided into five districts : Jutland, Funen, 
ernmenT" Laaland, Zealand, and Bornholm ; and by a subdivision into 
eighteen departments or arater. Local legislation is provided 
for in the constitution within these districts.* 

The right of free press is decreed and the right of meeting 
also to a limited extent. A meeting may be dispersed after 
three warnings. 

The Danish army is composed of the able-bodied men who 
S^vy!^ ^1*6 twenty-three years of age. The service consists of eight 
years in the regular army and eight more in the reserves. The 
kingdom is divided into two parts, each being obliged to sup- 
ply certain military contingents. The peace footing was set at 
42,950 in 1891 with a possible war footing of over 60,000 men 
and officers. The navy consists of conscripted sea-faring men, 
and the fleet is as follows : 

Armor-dads 9 

Cruisers 3 

Gunboats 20 

Others 36 

Total 68 

Iceland came into the possession of Denmark with Norway 
Colonies, in 1830 and was not given up when the latter was transferred 
to Sweden. It has no manufactures and there is little in- 
dustry of any kind beyond that connected with the sea. The 
Althing, the legislative assembly, consisted first of twenty 
and later of thirty elected deputies and six members nomi- 
nated by the king of Denmark. It has had certain vague 
authorities since its foundation in 1834, but in 1871 by an act of 
the Danish Rigsdag and in 1874 by a supplementary decree 
from Copenhagen it received the constitution of Denmark. 
The House is now elected once in six years, and out of the 
thirty members, who are chosen by a limited suffrage of tax- 
payers, six are chosen to sit in a separate House with the six 
appointed by the king. Iceland is an integral part of the 
Danish Kingdom, but it is not required to contribute to the 

* This, too, is carried out only to a very small extent. 



DENMARK. 143 

Danish taxes, nor has it any representation in the Rigsdag. 
The Althing lias full authority in its own penal and civil 
affairs, regulation of its own police, public worship, instruc- 
tion, matters of health, roads, agriculture, fishing, commerce, 
and other industries. Iceland also has charge of its own tax- 
ation and public finance. The royal government has decreed 
an allowance of about $65,000 annually for the twenty years. 
The king appoints the governor and other officers, and there is 
a minister for Iceland in Copenhagen. 

The other colonial possessions of Denmark are more impor- 
tant commercially though they have less political authority. 
They are as follows (including Iceland) : 

Colony. Area. Population. 

Iceland 39,756 69,224 

Greenland 46,740 10,221 

West Indies— St. Croix 74 18,430 

St. Thomas 23 14,889 

St. John , 21 944 

Total 86,614 113,208 

After the formation of the constitution and its adoption in 
1866, the legislative procedure of the government was satisfac- since i866. 
tory until in 1876 the king appointed under the premier, 
Estrup, a Conservative ministry. In the following elections 
the agricultural population and the middle classes gained con- 
trol of the majority and returned seventy-five out of the one 
hundred and twelve members of the Folkething. This gave 
the Liberals a majority in the Lower House, while in the 
Upper House the .Conservatives had a majority. A conflict 
began at once. The situation was peculiar, because instead of 
resigning, the ministry, having the king and Landsthing with 
it, remained in office. This has caused an infinite amount of 
trouble in the government of the country since then, and 
most of the political difficulties of the last twenty years may . 
be traced to this source. The Lower House claims the politi- 
cal right to insist on the parliamentary rule that when a 
ministry finds itself in a minority it should resign and a new 
ministry be made up from the new majority. Having a right 
to vote the budget the Folkething rejected it, ostensibly on 
account of a clause appropriating a large sum of money for 
the fortifications of the city of Copenhagen. Year after year 
this deadlock has occurred, the king bringing forward the 



144 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

budget with the Copenhagen fortification clause attached to 
it, and the Folkething rejecting the whole budget, until in 
1881 the sentiment became so strong against the government 
and the non-resignation of the ministry that riots were 
threatened. The king dissolved the Folkething three times 
in one session — an unconstitutional act — in the hope that a 
majority would be returned in his favor ; but the third House 
was returned with a greater majority for the Liberals than 
either of the others. The demand was that the ministry 
should resign, and year after year the budget was refused, that 
being the only effective method the Liberals had of showing 
their disapproval. At first the Folkething passed special 
measures for the maintenance of the army, but finally the 
king took upon himself, contrary to the constitution, the 
right of legislation, and bills were referred directly to the 
Landsthing without reference to the Folkething. As soon as 
they were promulgated, however, the Lower House initiated 
them and rejected them by large majorities. 

The result of this interminable fight has been fruitless as yet. 
It is the claim, and the only claim, of the Folkething that the 
ministry be responsible to the Rigsdag. More than three 
quarters of the time in each of the sessions has been wasted 
for twenty years and the government business is badly in 
arrears. There seems to be a prospect that in the near future 
the ministry may resign, as there is a strong desire on all 
sides to put an end to the deadlock and the Liberals continue 
to return larger majorities. They have joined the govern- 
ment in the present year in voting 10,000,000 kroner for the 
establishment of a free port near Copenhagen, similar to 
Hamburg in Germany, where goods may be landed free of 
duty and taxed only when they are sent inland. Poor laws 
have also been carried through and radical improvements 
made in the land laws. The old feudal system is completely 
done away with, and the peasant now holds his farm of about 
one hundred acres, according to the fertility, for life. Farms 
cannot be merged into each other, nor one farm divided into 
smaller ones. 



ECUADOR.* 

President, _ . . Dr. L, Cordero. 

MINISTRY. 

Minister of Foreign Affairs P. J. Lizaezaburu. 

Minister of Finance F. L. Sat^azar. 

Minister of War and Navy Gen. J. M. Savasti. 

Minister of Public Works, Instruction, and 

Worship R. Espinozo. 

Ecuador is situated in the northwestern part of South 
America. It is bounded on the north by Colombia, on the 
east by Brazil, on the south by Peru, and on the west by the 
Pacific Ocean. Quito is the capital with a population of about 
80,000. 

Ecuador is divided into sixteen departments and one terri- 
tory which have a total area of 118,630 square miles and a 
population of 1,272,065. The departments are : Carchi, Im- 
babura, Pichincha, Leon, Tunguragua, Chimborazo, Bolivar, 
Los Rios, Oriente, Guayas, Manabi, Esmeraldas, Oro, Azogues 
o' Canar, Loja, and Azuay, and the territory is Galapagos. 

In 1809 the inhabitants of Quito, a part of the Spanish New 
Granada, made an unsuccessful attempt to throw off the rule Eistorical 
of Spain. The attempt was repeated in 1812 with a similar sketch, 
result, but in 1820 Simon Bolivar gathered the entire forces of 
the north under him, and they together freed themselves 
from Spanish rule. Quito then became a part of the inde- 
pendent republic under Bolivar's control, until in 1831 under 
the name of Ecuador it became an independent republic. 
General Juan Jos6 de Flores was the first president, and since 
that time the country has been in an almost continual state of 
revolution. 

In 1845 Flores was exiled. The next year saw another revo- 
lution that was unsuccessful, but by 1850 the (Catholics under 
the leadership of a man named Noboa secured control of the 
government. They retained it only a year, however, and 

* For niap of Ecuador see Colombia. 

145 



146 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



Con- 
stitution. 



Legis- 
lature. 



Executive. 



Judiciary. 



insurrections and revolutions followed in 1856, 1859, and 1861. 
Meanwhile the surrounding republics pillaged Ecuador and 
annexed parts of her territory. Changes in the government 
occurred within the country in 1865, 1866, 1869, and 1872, and, 
attacked from without and within, it is not surprising that 
the growth of the state has been slovv^. Finally, in 1888, Seiior 
Flores was elected president and served his entire term. In 
1892 Dr. Cordero succeeded him. 

The constitution adopted May 11, 1830, still stands, though 
amended in many particulars in 1835, 1843, 1861, 1869, and in 
1883. It recognizes a president and two Houses, an Upper and 
a Lower, and is based largely, as are most of the South Ameri- 
can constitutions, on that of the United States. 

There is a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. The Senate 
is composed of two members returned from each of the seven- 
teen departments, who have the usual prerogatives of an 
Upper House. They are chosen for a four years' term, but the 
terms of half the members expire every two years. 

The Chamber of Deputies is composed of about thirty-four 
members, being one for every 30,000 inhabitants, but the 
number changes constantly. The Congress assembles without 
a summons on June 10 in every second year at Quito, the 
capital. 

The president is elected every four years by indirect elec- 
tions, there being nine hundred electors chosen by the people 
for the purpose. A vice-president chosen at the same time is 
president of the Council of State, besides filling the usual 
offices of a vice-president in a republic. The president re- 
ceives a salary of 15,000 sucres, and may be superseded in office 
by the vice-president during his term on a vote of Congress to 
that effect. He is assisted in the administration of govern- 
ment by four ministers of state, who with seven others consti- 
tute a council. They are all collectively and individually 
responsible to Congress, and each receives a salary of 3,000 
sucres. 

The president has the power of veto, but on the insistence 
of Congress a bill becomes a law in spite of it. 

There is in Ecuador a system of graded courts arranged in 
four series. There are 656 parochial courts, canton or depart- 
ment courts, and finally a court of appeals, and a Supreme 



ECUADOR. 147 

Court at Quito. Like all else in the state, however, it is un- 
certain in its efficacy. 

The military force of Ecuador consists at present of two 
brigades of artillery, four battalions of cavalry, and two ^^. 
columns of police, in all about 3,000 men. 

The navy is composed of eight vessels of war, five under 
steam, a transport, a gunboat, and a third-class cruiser. 

The religion is Catholic according to the constitution, to the 
exclusion of any other creed. Tithes are still collected and 
the republic is one of the most faithful in sending contribu- 
tions to Eome regularly. The population is largely Indian, 
there being only about 109,000 whites. Advanced education 
is meager and consists of a university at Quito devoted only to 
the higher grades of study. Primary education is obligatory 
throughout the republic and there are several small colleges 
in other cities besides military, scientific, naval, and com- 
mercial schools in Quito. 



EGYPT. 



Khedive, ... Abbas II. 

RULERS SINCE 1800. 

Turkish Sultan 1811 

Mehemet Ali 1811-1848 

Ibrahim (June-Nov.) 1848-1848 

Abbas 1 1848-1854 

Said 1854-1863 

Ismail 1868-1879 

Tewfik 1879-1892 

Abbas II 1892- 

MINISTRY. 

Minister of Foreign Affairs Tigrane Pasha 

Minister of Interior, president Riaz Pasha 

Minister of Finance Boutros Pasha Ghali 

Minister of Public Works and Instruction Mohammed Zeki Pasha 

Minister of Justice Mazloum Pasha 

Minister of War and Navy Youssef Chowhdy Pasha 



TABLE OF STATISTICS. 



Province. 



Lower Egypt : 
Cairo, Alexandria, Damietta, Ro- 
setta, Behera, Charkieli, Dakah- 
lieh, Gharbieh, Kalioubieh, Me- 
noufieh 

Isthmus : 
Port Said, Suez 

Asia : 
El Arish 

Upper Egypt : 
Kosseir, Assiout, Beni Souef, Fa- 
youm, Guizeh, Minieh, Guerga, 
Kena, Esna 



Total. 



Area. 



6,204 

1-5 

4,483 1-7 
10,698 



Population. 



3,965,664 

32,471 

3,923 

2,776,982 
6,779,040 



148 



EGYPT. 



since 1800. 



Egypt is a tributary of the Ottoman Empire, at present 
under the practical control of the British government. It is 
situated in the northeastern part of Africa, and is bounded on 
the north by the Mediterranean Sea, on the east by the Red 
Sea, on the south by the Soudan and the unexplored regions 
of Central Africa, and 
on the west by the Des- 
ert of Sahara. Cairo is 
the capital with a popu- 
lation of 874,838. 

Egypt after the in- 
vasion of the French un- 
der Napoleon returned "** ^Kcncii'W^^^^ A History 
to anarchy again as soon 
as the beys had regained 
control. It was at the 
time a pashalik of the 
Ottoman Empire, nom- 
inally governed by a 
pasha, but in point of 
fact the Porte did not 
have the power to main- 
tain its authority and 
the beys divided the 
country among them 
and paid allegiance to 
the most powerful of 
their number. Each 
had territory and sus- 
tained an army ranging from two hundred to 1,200 men. 

In 1806 Mehemet Ali was appointed governor of Egypt by 
the sultan. He was an Albanian by birth, but had moved to 

149 




150 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

Egypt in his youth, and bj^ the force of his remarkable 
ability had become the head of a party there. His influence 
brought him a governorship, and between 1806 and 1811 he in- 
creased his power over the other beys to such good account 
that he became pasha of the wliole country. This w^as only 
accomplished, however, after a fierce war w^aged against the 
beys, which became so severe that the English government 
sent a military force to check its continuance. The British 
troops were defeated, and in 1811 Mehemet Ali secured from 
the Porte his appointment as viceroy of Egypt, the union be- 
tween his government and that of the Ottoman Empire being 
merely a personal one, except that Egypt was to pay an an- 
nual tribute to the Porte. 

This remarkable man then began a career that scarcely has an 
equal in Egyptian history. While he was waging war against 
the refractory beys, he sent a force under his son Ibrahim into 
Wahabees in Arabia, where the Inhabitants were soon sub- 
dued ; and at the same time he undertook a careful study of 
the political and civil government of European countries and 
planned to introduce European forms into the Egyptian state. 
After the success and close of the Arabian campaign, some of 
the most powerful beys of Egypt were invited to Cairo to 
witness the ceremony celebrating the victory. On their ar- 
rival they were massacred in a narrow street of the city, and 
all opposition to the new viceroy was at an end. Egypt now 
began a period of peace and progress that had not been known 
in many years. New works of public benefit were begun, 
educational and military institutions w^ere opened and Euro- 
pean instructors imported to take charge of them. 

In 1820 Mehemet Ali sent forces against the Greek revolu- 
tionists ; in 1824 a religious insurrection was crushed by the first 
Egyptian troops trained under the new sj'^stem. Among the 
foreigners who undertook the regeneration of the country was 
the remarkable Suleiman Pasha, Colonel Sfeves, a Frenchman 
to whom the credit of the wonderful system of military 
schools in Egypt is largely due. In the years immediately 
following 1825, the growth of Mehemet All's power, which was 
accompanied by the severity of his measures, led him finally to 
look toward the independence of Egj^pt. This culminated in 
1831 in the expedition into Syria under his son Ibrahim. The 



EGYPT. 151 

invasion was ostensibly to punish the pasha of Acre for his hos- 
tility to the present government of Egypt, but it nearly ended 
in the capture of Constantinople itself. Russia interfered to 
protect the Porte, and Meheniet Ali was forced to be con- 
tented with the possession of Syria, where Ibrahim restored 
order by the most extreme measures. Peace was restored by 
a treaty in 1833, but in 1841 another uprising of the Syrians 
led to such inhuman measures against the inhabitants that 
the British government interfered and restored the province 
to the Porte. 

In 1848 Mehemet Ali resigned in favor of his son, lineal suc- 
cession having been granted by the sultan in 1811. The great 
viceroy's mind gave way and he died in 1849. Ibrahim lived 
only two months after his accession, and Abbas Pasha, Me- 
hemet's grandson, succeeded him. 

The following year saw comparative peace in Egypt, which 
resulted from the system introduced by Mehemet Ali and 
from his code of laws. Abbas was a miserable ruler and gave 
himself up to his own pleasures. Said Pasha, his successor, 
was not a man of ability in any way equal to Mehemet, and 
though he strove to carry on the government wisely he suc- 
ceeded but indifferently well. His reign, therefore, was only 
a period of stagnation and decay. It remained for his suc- 
cessor, Ismail Pasha, in 1863, to rebuild and finish w^hat Me- 
hemet Ali had begun. 

Up to the time of the insurrection of Mehemet Ali in 1841, 
Egypt was a tributary state of the Ottoman Empire, known ^men?' 
as a pashalik or province and ruled by a pasha appointed by 
the sultan, paying a tribute to the Porte. The pasha had 
large powers over the life and property of the people, but could 
not enter into any communication with foreign powers, ex- 
cept with the knowledge and consent of the Porte. At the 
same time the sultan was supposed to have equal powers in 
the pashahk. 

In 1841 Mehemet Ali compelled the sultan to issue a firman, 
or decree, making him hereditary ruler in Egypt, independent 
of the home government in every way, except that he was 
obliged to pay an annual tribute, and he agreed not to enter 
into negotiations with foreign powers. But the latter condi- 
tion was withdrawn in 1867. With the accession of each new 



152 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

pasha, or, as he is now called, khedive, a firman issued from 
the Porte has corroborated these concessions. 

Ismail began the nearest approach to a constitution that 
Egypt has had by making a plan for representative govern- 
.ment, but it was not put into practice, and the government 
was retained as before in the hands of the khedive, his coun- 
cilors, and his army. 

On the deposition of Ismail in 1879, England assumed the 
virtual control of the Egyptian government both for financial 
and political reasons, and the insurrection of Arabi Pasha was 
against this foreign rule. His national representative assem- 
bly was soon overthrown, and then, as France refused to assist 
in quelling the revolt that followed, the British government 
took control of the state and appointed an English Financial 
Resident for the virtual administration of the country. This 
powerful member of the Council of Ministers had complete 
control of the finances of Egypt, and he, with a special com- 
missioner, Lord Dufferin, brought about the adoption of the 
Organic Law in 1883, which is the present constitution of 
Egypt. 

The discussion of the details of this constitution can be of 
no great importance here as it has not yet been put into force. 
The question of the government of the country is still under 
discussion and is likely to become a matter rather for settle- 
ment by the great powers than by the khedive. The only 
portion of the constitution that has been carried out is that 
which considers legislation, and this is at present in more or 
less effective working order. 

The Legislative Council is made up of thirty members in 
Legis- allj fourteen appointed by the khedive with the advice and 
lature. consent of his ministers, among whom are the president and 
vice-president of the Council of Ministers, and sixteen elected 
for a term of six years, one from Cairo, one representing 
Alexandria, Rosetta, Suez, Damietta, Port Said, Ismailia, and 
El Arisli, and one for each of the fourteen moudirieh, or de- 
partments, of Egypt. The Council has the right to insist 
upon having every bill referred to it, and no bill can become a 
law until the advice of the Council has been asked. That 
advice need not necessarily be followed, though the executive 
is obliged to give his reasons for not following it. In a like 



EGYPT. 



153 



manner the budget must be submitted to the Council not later 
than December 1st of each year, and it cannot become a law 
until that body has passed upon it. If the English Financial 
Resident does not follow its advice he is obliged to give his 
reasons. 

There was also, according to the Organic Law, to have been 
a National Assembly, but it has never materialized. It was 
to have contained a membershi]D of eighty-two including both 
the Council of Ministers and the Legislative Council. 

The khedive is the executive officer of the state. He has 
very large powers under the firman of 1841, but they are con- 
siderably curtailed by the present control which the British 
government has over the country. He accredits and receives 
foreign emissaries, commands the army, and has general 
supervision of the administration and judiciary of the state. 
He has to a very marked degree the control of private prop- 
erty and the persons of individuals, though this oriental 
power has been somewhat curtailed by the foreign protector- 
ate. The khedive appoints six ministers. 

The present organization of the Egyptian judiciary is ex- 
tremely complicated. There is a system of courts made up of 
Europeans and Egyptians, so arranged that w^hen a case comes 
up between a Frenchman and an Egyptian, or between the 
French and Egyptian governments, or either government with 
individuals of the other, the court is composed of both Egyp- 
tians and Frenchmen. The case is the same with other nation- 
alities than the French, whatever state is involved with Egypt 
being represented by some of its subjects. Where the trial in- 
volves more than one nationality besides the Egj^ptian, there 
are mixed courts composed of certain members, and they suffice 
for all such cases. Yet tlie sj'stems are still very unsatisfac- 
tory. The highest courts of these tribunals are at Alexandria. 
They have gradually superseded the system generally adopted 
in oriental countries by foreign nations of setting up consular 
courts. Besides these there have been formed in the last few 
years native courts for the trial of cases between natives on 
the European system. 

In 1872 a body of armed police was organized in Cairo and 
Alexandria, and this in a remodeled condition was put under 
the command of the two English members of the department 



Khedive. 



Judiciary. 



154 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



Local gov- 
ernment. 



Army and 
Wavy. 



Contempo- 
rary 
history. 



of the interior in 1884. It was the uncertainty to life and 
property that brought about this arrangement. In like man- 
ner the wretched condition into which Egypt has fallen finan- 
cially induced the British government to take entire control 
of the finances of the country through an English financial 
member of the ministry. This minister was appointed after a 
conference of the European powers in 1880, called together by 
the khedive to act as an international commission for the pur- 
pose of reorganizing the finances. Otherwise the local ques- 
tions of justice and finance are still to a certain extent admin- 
istered by the moudir of the province in which they occur. 

According to the Organic Law of 1883 there is supposed to 
be in each moudirieh a provincial council. The law provides 
for an election of members to serve six years with certain 
qualifications. The moudir of the province is the presiding 
officer, and the council is supposed to have jurisdiction in 
local finance, road building, canals, education, all such bills 
being submitted to the Legislative Council before becoming 
laws. But this part of the constitution is practically a dead 
letter, and the moudirs, who are aj^pointed by the khedive, 
are allowed to exercise extensive powers under his direction 
without much regard to the provincial councils. The govern- 
ment of Egypt, therefore, especially in local afl*airs, is as yet 
far from the European standard. 

After the rebellion of 1882 the Egyptian army was entirely 
disbanded and the British government took charge of the or- 
ganization of a new force. Under this new management the 
Egyptian army with sixty English officers numbers about 
13,000. Besides this there is an English force of 3,300 which 
has been maintained there since the English occupation. 

The Mohammedan religion is the popular religion. It is 
organized under the patriarchs of Alexandria. Education 
consists largely in the reading of the Koran, though there are 
now a number of elementary schools. 

Ismail Pasha began his reign with measures that looked to- 
ward the carrying out of Mehemet All's plans. He instituted 
reforms in the department of justice. He increased and 
systematized the army. And he secured in a firman from the 
sultan the acknowledgment that Mehemet All's family should 
govern in Egypt by lineal succession. 



EGYPT. 155 

Ismail was a bad financier, however, and had a passion and 
a skill for borrowing money that has seldom been equaled. 
Gradually as the years went on he fell more and more into 
debt, until 1875. It was then made public that the khedive 
had sold the shares be possessed in the Suez Canal to Great 
Britain. He also asked England to send a financier to in- 
spect the condition of Egyptian finances, and General Cave 
was sent out for this purpose. The sale of the shares, giving, 
as it did, the control of the canal into English hands, caused 
France to interfere, with the results that Egypt was declared 
bankrupt and France and England were jointly appointed 
receivers. Mr. Wilson, representing England, and M. de 
Bligni^res, representing France, became members of the new 
cabinet. But Ismail would not permit himself to be ruled by 
these two men, and on the 17th of May he discharged them. 
England and France refused to allow their representatives to 
retire, and the result was that Ismail was compelled by the 
sultan to abdicate in favor of his son Tewfik, on the 26th of 
June, 1879. It was then decided that the new khedive could 
not form new laws of finance without the consent of the 
sultan and the two great powers. The army was also limited 
to 18,000. Wilson and Bligni^res became members of the new 
ministry. Everything seemed to be going well and the 
finances were being put upon a firm basis, when suddenly, on 
the 9th of September, 1881, an outbreak occurred in Cairo 
which soon spread into a direct insurrection against the 
foreign rule. The ministry was changed, and it was not long 
before England and France had a large fleet before Alex- 
andria. On the 11th and 12tli of June, 1882, Alexandria was 
bombarded by the allies. By September the country was in 
British hands, but the hostilities in the South were still 
raging and continued to rage in a fierce warfare until 1885-86, 
when the memorable expedition of English troops w^as sent 
into the Soudan to rescue General Gordon, w^ho had been 
appointed to quell the revolt of the Arabs there in what 
had finally become a semi-religious war under a man called 
the Mahdi. Since then Egypt has been practically a financial 
experiment for Great Britain, and the state of afiTairs is much 
better now than at any time in the last decade. Abbas II. 
succeeded Tewfik on the latter' s death in 1892. 



FRANCE. 

President, - - FRAxgois Felix Faure. 
RULERS SINCE 1800. 



Napoleon Bonaparte 1804-1814 

Louis XVIII 1814-1824 

Charles IX 1824-1830 

Louis Philippe 1830-1848 

Provisional Com. (Feb. to May) 1848 
Executive Com. (May to Dec.) 1848 
Napoleon, pres. ... (Dec. 20) 1848-1852 
Napoleon III., emperor 1852-1870 



Commune 1870-1871 

Republic, Thiers, pres 1871-1873 

MacMahon 1878-1879 

Gr6vy 1879-1887 

Carnot 1887-1894 

Casimir-P6rier 1894-1895 

Frangois Felix Faure. ..1895- 



TABLE OF STATISTICS. 



Departmerd. 



Ain 

Aisne 

Allier 

Alpes (Basses) 

Alpes (flautes)... 
Alpes-Maritimes 

Ardeche 

Ardennes 

Ariege 

Aube 

Aude..., 

Aveyron 

Belfort 

Bouches-Rhone. . 

Calvados 

Cantal 

Charente 

Charente-Inf. 

Cher 

Correze 

Corse 

Cote-d'Or 

Cotes-du-Nord.... 

Creuse 

Dordogne 

Doubs 

Drome 

Eure 

Eure-et-Loir 

Finistei-e 

Gard 

Garonne 

Gers 

Gironde 

Herault 

Ille-et-Vilaine 

Indre 

Indre-et-Loire .... 

Isere 

Jura 

Landes 

Loir-et-Cher 

Loire 

Loire (Haute) , 

Loire-Inferieure. 



Area. 



2,234 
2,839 
2,822 
2,685 
2,158 
1,482 
2,136 
2,020 
1,890 
2,317 
2,438 
3,376 
235 
1,971 
2,132 
2,217 
2,294 
2,635 
2,780 
2,265 
3377 
3,383 
2,659 
2,150 
3,546 
2,018 
2,518 
2,300 
2,268 
2,595 
2,253 
2,429 
2,425 
3,761 
2,393 
2,597 
2,624 
2,361 
3,201 
1,928 
3,599 
2,452 
1,838 
1,916 
2,654 



Pop. 



856,907 
545,493 
424,382 
124,285 
115,522 
258,571 
371,269 
324,923 
227,491 
255,548 
317,372 
400,467 
83,670 
630,622 
428,945 
239,601 
360,259 
456,202 
359,276 
328,119 
288,596 
376,866 
618,652 
284,660 
478,471 
303,081 
306,419 
349,471 
284,688 
727,012 
419,388 
472,383 
261,084 
793,528 
461,651 
626,8^5 
292,868 
337,298 
572,145 
273,028 
297,842 
280,358 
616,227 
316,735 
645,263 



Department. 



Loiret 

Lot 

Lot-et-Garonne .... 

Lozere 

Maine-et-Loire 

Manche 

Marne 

Marne (Haute) 

Mayenne.'. 

Meurthe-Moselle .. 

Meuse 

Morbihan 

Nievre 

Nord 

Oise 

Orne 

Pas-de-Calais 

Puy-du-Dome 

Pyrenees (Basses) 
Pyrenees (Hautes) 
Pyrenees (Orient) 

Rhone 

Saone 

Saone-et-Loire . . . 

Sarthe 

Savoie 

Savoie (Haute)., 

Seine 

Seine-Inferieure 
Sei ne-et-Marne, . 

Seine-et-Oise 

Sevres (Deux).... 

Somme 

Tarn 

Tarn-et-Garonne .. 

Var 

Vaucluse 

Vendee 

Vienne 

Vienne (Haute).... 

Vosges 

Yonne 

Total 



Area. 



2,614 
2,012 
2,067 
1,996 
2,749 
2,289 
3,x59 
2,-»02 
1,996 
2,025 
2,405 
2,625 
2,632 
2,193 
2,261 
2,354 
2,551 
3,070 
2,943 
1.749 
1,592 
1,077 
2,062 
3,302 
2,396 
2,224 
1,667 
183 
2,330 
2,215 
2.164 
2;317 
2,379 
2,21" 
1,436 
2,349 
1,370 
2,588 
2,691 
2,130 
2,266 
2,8" 



204,092 



Pop. 



377,718 
253,885 
295,360 
135,527 
518,589 
513,815 
434,692 
243,533 
332,387 
444,150 
292,253 
544,470 
343,581 

1,736,341 
401,835 
354,387 
874,364 
564,266 
425,027 
225,861 
210,125 
806,737 
280,856 
619,523 
429,737 
263,297 
268,267 

3,142,595 
839,876 
356,709 
628,590 
354,282 
546,495 
346,739 
206,596 
288,336 
235,411 
442,355 
344,355 
372,878 
410,196 
344,688 



38,343,192 



156 



FRANCE. 



France lies in the western part of Europe, with the Eng- 
lish Channel on the north, the neutralized kingdom of Bel- 
gium and the duchy of Luxemburg, Germany, Switzerland, 
^nd Italy on the east, Spain and the Mediterranean Sea on the 
south, and the Atlantic Ocean on the west. The present gov- 
ernment is republican, formed somewhat on the lines of the 
government of the 
United States, but 
having a responsi- 
ble ministry and 
other features dif- 
fering from the lat- 
ter. Paris is the 
capital, with a pop- 
ulation of 2,447,957. 

After the years of 
Napoleon's reign 
and of his victories 
over neighboring 
countries had come 
to an end, it was 
the signal for all 
Europe to seek 
vengeance against 
France. The coun- 
try was garrisoned 
with foreign troops ; fortresses on the frontier were either 
razed or given over to foreign powers ; a huge indemnity was 
exacted from the country by the Holy Alliance, and France 
was for a time completely prostrated. A reactionary move- 
ment was the result. Louis XVIII., the representative of the 
Bourbon dynasty, had been declared king of France on the 

157 




History 
since 1800. 



158 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

fall of Napoleon, and again after the Hundred Days. Con- 
trary to expectation, Louis carried out a milder policy than 
was threatened, but such men as Marshal Ney and Labedoyere 
were shot. The general political condition of France, how- 
ever, was one in favor of reaction and the reinstatement of the 
Legitimists and Bourbons. 

In following the political history of France it is important 
to bear in mind that Paris, as the center of France politi- 
cally, socially, and commercially, has always been the guiding 
spirit of the whole country. What takes place in Paris is 
accepted by the entire state, and the political history of 
Paris is the political history of France. Recognizing this, 
it is stiU necessary to note that in general the rural population, 
living away from Paris, and therefore never seeing the ex- 
tremes and abuses of different forms of government, have 
given their preference to monarchical forms. It is in Paris and 
the larger cities that the radical, socialistic, and even republi- 
can forms of government have had their inception, and the 
great republican advance in the provinces has been made 
within the last two decades. 

Between the two parties that toward 1818 formed the Re- 
actionists and the so-called *' Doctrinaires," the king steered a 
middle course. It was to the latter party that Guizot belonged 
— and to a certain extent Thiers also — and these men stood 
between the Royalists and the Radicals who brought on the 
July Revolution in 1830. Louis dissolved the Reactionist 
Chamber in 1816, set up Decazes as minister, and tried to 
maintain a middle course. But when his nephew, the Due de 
Berri, was shot by a saddler named Louvel, the reactionary 
tide returned and gained the ascendant. The Moderates were 
charged with the assassination and the Decazes ministry fell. 
The Conservative Due de Richelieu succeeded to the premier- 
ship and the elections were so tampered with that out of four 
hundred and thirty seats in the Chamber only seventeen were 
filled by Liberals. In the same year, 1824, Louis died and the 
crown went to the Count d' Artois, his brother, under the title 
of Charles X. 

The new king had nothing in his character to make him a 
worthy successor of his brother. He had little ability him- 
self and gave the Royalists full sway. The history of the 



FRANCE. 159 

next six years is therefore a preparation for the Revolu- 
tion of 1830. It was not long before cries arose against the 
medieval regulations that began to appear under the influence 
of the Jesuits. Even the National Guard opposed these 
measures and was thereupon disbanded in 1827. A year later 
Martignac became minister, but gave place in a year to Pol- 
ignac who was less liberal and more in sympathy with the 
king. The Liberals and Radicals made demonstrations sym- 
pathizing with the struggle for independence in Greece, that 
had just been successfully ended, and compared it with the 
present state of afiairs in France. Gradually the storm arose 
and burst on the 25th of July, 1830, Avhen the Ordinances of St. 
Cloud were published, proclaiming the press under strict cen- 
sorship, the dissolution of the Chamber, and summoning a 
new one. 

Within three days the citizens of Paris had arisen. Thiers, 
the editor of the National^ began his attack on the govern- 
ment, and on the 27th the city was barricaded. Three days 
later, the palace of the Bourbons was sacked by the mob, 
Lafayette was in charge of the affairs of Paris, and Charles 
X. was no longer a king. August 2d, Louis Philippe, the Due 
d' Orleans, became the Citizen King of France. He had with 
great tact kept himself apart from the disturbances during his 
predecessor's reign, and when he came into the control of the 
government, he came as the champion of the people — king of 
the French " by the will of the people," and the friend of the 
venerable Lafayette, the people's trusted adviser ! 

All went well at first. The king reformed the constitution 
on liberal lines. He took into his cabinet the important men 
among the Republicans, Lafayette and Barrot, and felt that if 
the Republicans could be kept at his side the Legitimists 
and Bonapartists would be easily disposed of. The ministries 
changed rarely in the next eight or ten years, and then only 
because the king gradually went over to the Reactionists. 
Thiers and Guizot opposed each other on different ministries 
principally in regard to foreign relations. The troubles in 
Africa combined with the differences in the theory of govern- 
ment under a king, created the two parties. Thiers believed 
that the king should reign but not govern, while Guizot and 
his followers were of the reactionary Conservative party. 



160 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

Gradually indications appeared in the king's party of a move- 
ment toward the censorship of tlie press and other arbitrary 
measures. To this must be added the attempt of Prince Na- 
poleon, nephew of the emperor, at Strasburg to instigate an 
uprising in his favor. This came to nothing ; but the dis- 
turbance caused by the recurrence of the great name and the 
recollections it awakened unsettled people's minds and led the 
premier, Mole, to dissolve the Chamber in 1838 and order a new 
election. 

When the new Chamber came together it contained four 
parties : (1) The Extreme Right ; (2) the Right Center, under 
the leadership of Guizot ; (3) the Left Center, under Thiers ; 
and (4) the Extreme Left, under Barrot. The last was the 
party which had figured in the July Revolution. The votes 
were strong enough to defeat the government, and ministries 
changed often between 1839 and 1841. Then came the troubles 
in Egypt, the bombardment of Alexandria by England, and 
the treaty regarding the settlement of the government of that 
country, which France was not allow^ed to participate in. 
This was irritating enough of itself, but when the removal of 
Napoleon's body from St. Helena to Paris was followed by the 
second attempt of Prince Napoleon to win over the French 
army at Boulogne, the excitement of popular feeling rose 
against the government. 

Guizot was nainister-president when, in 1844, troubles in 
Algiers brought up the African question again. French resi- 
dents there complained of the insecurity of property due to 
inroads of the Bedouins and the Kabyls, who had revolted 
against the government of Algiers. French forces were there- 
upon dispatched against the leader, Abd-el-Kader, but it 
proved a difficult task to put down these wild tribes, and it 
was not until 1847 that this priest-warrior was captured and 
brought to France and the war ended. 

Such troubles at home and abroad were exaggerated in the 
Chamber by the leaders of the Opposition parties, Thiers and 
Barrot, and this reached its climax ' in 1848. Guizot was fast 
leaning toward the policy of Metternich and the Holy Al- 
liance, and the result w^as the uprising of the people and the 
revolution of February, 1848. The immediate cause of the 
outbreak was a disturbance at a banquet of members of the 



FRANCE. 161 

Extreme Left, with Barrot as presiding officer. The National 
Guard was to have taken i:)art in citizen's dress, but the gov- 
ernment opposed this and riot ensued. Next day fighting 
began ; the troops fired on tlie mob, and barricades were 
thrown up. Guizot resigned and the king tried to form a 
ministry under Tliiers and Barrot. But it was too late. The 
fighting continued. After trying several times to bring about 
quiet, Louis Philippe abdicated in favor of the Comtede Paris, 
his grandson. 

Meanwhile, in the Hotel de Ville, a provisional Committee of 
Government had been formed. It was composed of De I'Eure, 
Lamartine, Creunaux, Ledru-Rollin, Arago, Bedeau, Carnot, 
and Garnier-Pages. These men, with Louis Blanc and several 
others as secretaries, later having votes in the committee also, 
were chosen as the governing power of France with De I'Eure 
as the president. To gain popularity and at the same time 
relieve commercial distress, the new government organized 
enormous workshops giving work to 100,000 people, and it was 
to this rash move that the First Republic owed its fall. At 
one time 117,000 men were being employed to do almost noth- 
ing at a salary that would soon have depleted the treasury. 
It became necessary to make some change, and after a time 
large numbers of workmen were sent to different parts of 
France and finally the shops w^ere closed altogether. 

This caused more dissatisfaction throughout the turbulent 
population of Paris and rendered them the more ready to fol- 
low a new leader. Those at the head of the new government 
soon realized the evils of radicalism and the necessity for 
severe measures. In three naonths Paris was again raving 
against its government. Barricades were set up again in the 
streets in May, and a week of fierce fighting betw^een the mob 
and the soldiery followed. General Cavaignac was appointed 
dictator of the city, and finally, with the streets filled with 
dead, he was able to report that order had been restored. For 
this vigorous action he was chosen president. 

In the new elections Louis Napoleon was returned to the 
Assembly. He had tried twice to bring himself before the 
French, and at the third trial he succeeded. He played a 
quiet role in the Assembly, awaiting his opportunity. The 
constitution, such as it was, provided for a presidential term 



162 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

of four years, but did not permit a second term until four 
years had intervened. There was a Legislative Assembly of 
750 members and a Council of State chosen for a six years' 
term by the Assembly itself and responsible to it. In the new 
election, following his election to the Assembly, Napoleon 
was chosen president by five times as many votes as any other 
candidate procured. 

This election cannot be explained in any other way than 
that in the country throughout France the memory of the 
Emperor Napoleon was still strong in the people's mind and 
symbolic of powerful government and the glory of France. 
The name was a watchword and carried all before it. Napo- 
leon was proclaimed president December 20, 1848. 

The next year brought into contrast two theories of govern- 
ment in France. Paris was in favor of a republic of a radical 
order. France as a country, outside of Paris, looked toward a 
more majestic rule un der the Napoleonic name. By December, 
1851, Napoleon had so prepared and fostered this latter feeling 
that when on the night of the second his famous Coup d'etat 
was carried out, little opposition was made to it. Paris was 
put in charge of the military and any attempt at opposition 
was crushed in embryo. The city, surprised and stunned, had 
no time to oppose the military. By the Coup d ^J^tat, with 
the aid of the army. Napoleon had taken control of the gov- 
ernment and dissolved the Assembly. A new election was 
imnaediately ordered and by 7,000,000 votes out of less than 
8,000,000, the country made Napoleon president for a second 
term of ten years. A new constitution was promulgated in 
1852 which provided for a ministry responsible only to the 
president, and two Houses, one electoral and the other 
composed of members largely appointed by the power of the 
president, and in November of the same year by another gen- 
eral election Napoleon was chosen emperor of France, under 
the title of Napoleon III., by over 7,000,000 votes. 

The new emperor married a Spanish lady, Eugenie de Mon- 
tijo, who bore him a son in 1853, the Prince Eugene. 

France had on her boundaries the unorganized provinces of 
Germany, of Switzerland, and of Italy — all inferior to united 
France ; and it seems to have been the emperor's idea in the 
diplomatic negotiations which followed during the next ten 



FRANCE. 163 

years, to so coaduct his diplomatic relations that none of the 
three should become united into a government sufficiently pow- 
erful to make it a rival of France, but that he himself should 
fill the place of arbiter in all their troubles, retaining the bal- 
ance of power in his own hands. The result of his labors, 
however, was the formation of the German Empire, the unity 
of the Swiss provinces, and the independence of Italy. 

Under the foreign policy of the emperor, France joined the 
allies in preventing the encroachment of Russia on the Danu- 
bian provinces.* The war ended with the fall of Sevastopol 
on the 10th of September, 1855. In the light of future events, 
one of the chief results of the war was the coldness created 
between Prussia and France, which continued to increase until 
the war of 1870. 

In 1858 France began again to turn toward war. The em- 
peror's life was attempted several times, and in each case it 
proved to be an Italian who made the attempt. Italy was 
making her struggle for independence, and under the influ- 
ence of the empress — a zealous Catholic — some of Napoleon's 
measures had pointed toward the restoration of the papal rule 
there. This would mean death to Italian independence, 
and the attempts at assassination were easily traced to this 
source. Partly to avert this hostility, partly to indulge his 
love of foreign conquest, and finally to check Austrian advance 
in Italy, the emperor joined with Victor Emmanuel in a war 
against Austria.f The victory went with the French from the 
first, and the war closed with the battle of Solferino, June 24, 
1859. Austria virtually retired from Italy and ceded all the 
Italian territory in her possession except Peschiera and Man- 
tua. Under the articles of the treaty of Villafranca, France re- 
ceived Savoie and Nice. Italy soon went beyond Napoleon's 
control and established its independence, leaving the papal 
state under French iDrotection. 

The jealousy of Napoleon as he watched the growth of the 
Prussian Kingdom in Central Europe, increased after his suc- 
cesses in the south. The Prussian success in the Danish war 
was another sign of her increase of power and only served to 
add to the hostility of the French. When the emperor, after 

*See Russia. 

•f-For an account of this war see Italy. 



164 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

the war of 1866, saw Prussia at the head of the German nation 
and on the road to the accomplishment of German unity, it 
became his object to check her growth. At the same time the 
duchy of Luxemburg was anotlier bone of contention. The 
French government was negotiating for the purcliase of the 
whole duchy when the emperor discovered that the Prussian 
government, by bringing pressure on Belgium, was prevent- 
ing the sale. All these different causes only served to increase 
the already strained relations between the two countries. 

Napoleon's position in 1868 was not an enviable one. He 
had evacuated Rome and deserted the papal cause, and the 
pope was not, therefore, on friendly relations with his govern- 
ment. A so-called volunteer guard which remained in Rome 
gave Garibaldi an opportunity to influence popular sentiment 
against the French among the Italian people and, at the same 
time, to greatly endanger the safety of the papacy itself. This 
Napoleon was bound to resent, and the result was the dispatch 
of French troops to the protection of the pope's estate, and the 
consequent further estrangement of the Italian government. 
At the same time, the emperor's throne depended to a certain 
extent on the glory he won abroad by dij)lomacy or by w^ar. 

The question of the succession of the Spanish crown, though 
an apparently insignificant cause for war, served as the imme- 
diate grounds for hostilities where the two parties were only 
awaiting a pretext. The Spanish government, such as it was, 
had offered the crown to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, a 
relative of the king of Prussia. To his acceptance the French, 
government took exception, and King William of Prussia, as 
the head of his house, was asked to prevent him from definitely 
accepting the throne. On the latter's refusal to take any action 
in the matter the French declared war against Prussia.* France 
from the start was the weaker and in the worse condition for 
a campaign, and Napoleon as a general was no match for the 
king and his military advisers. The result was a fierce war of 
eighteen months, along the Rhine at first, gradually moving 
into French territory, until on September 2d the battle of 
Sedan destroyed the military strength of the French. The 
siege of Paris which ended with its surrender on the 27th of 
January, 1871, closed the war. 

*See Germany. 



FRANCE. 



165 



The constitution of France has a particular significance 
among republican institutions. It is the result of a century of 
changes in a government ranging from anarchy to monarchy 
and dictatorship. Among these the republic has been tried 
four times ; in 1789, in 1830, in 1848, and in 1870. The present 
constitution is therefore saddled with much of the tradition of 
these former attempts, and with much of the monarchical form 
of government also, which is the natural inheritance of the 
French people. The sudden changes from time to time dur- 
ing the century have rendered any form of government unsta- 
ble, and though the present republic has maintained itself for 
eighteen years, there are still small but active parties among 
the Legitimists and the Bonapartists. The attempt in 1889 to 
reinstate the monarchy under General Boulanger and its de- 
feat have done much to strengthen the republic. This showed 
that it could at last withstand the popular enthusiasm of Paris, 
and that the industrial and the middle classes were strongly 
in favor of the constitution and the republican form of gov- 
ernment. One of the most important watchwords for the 
overthrow of the government has been the cry for "revision 
of the constitution," but that has not met with, the success 
expected during recent years. The present government has 
itself amended its own constitution in 1879, 1884, 1885, and 
1889. Nevertheless it remains a fact that the history of the 
republic has shown it to be in constant danger, and to main- 
tain its integrity the use of dictatorial powers has several 
times been necessary during the last eighteen years. 

The present constitution was drawn up by a Frenchman 
named Wallon, one of the delegates to the National Convention 
appointed for that purpose after the fall of the Commune. It 
was completed in its first form in the summer and fall of 1875, 
and with amendments has stood without any vital changes 
since then. 

The legislative portion of the government includes a Cham- 
ber of Deputies and a Senate. They meet and adjourn simulta- 
neously, and are obliged to assemble on the second Thursday 
in January, remaining in session at least five months. It is 
in the power of the president to adjourn the Chambers, but 
they must be reopened within a month, and they cannot be 
prorogued twice in the same session. On the motion of an 



Con- 
stitution. 



Legis- 
lature. 



166 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

absolute majority the president is obliged to summon an extra 
session, but he may do so on his own authority if he deems 
the occasion sufficiently momentous to warrant it. The Senate 
is obliged to assemble one month before the retirement of the 
president in order to proceed to the election of a new president, 
and in the event of the latter' s death both Houses meet at 
once to fill his place. Both Chambers sit with open doors, 
though they have the privilege of secret session under certain 
conditions. Each Chamber decides questions of disputed elec- 
tions to its own body, and each elects its own president, vice- 
president, and secretary. The members of both Houses are 
free from arrest while in office, except when taken in the act 
of some criminal offense, and no member can be prosecuted 
for votes cast or speeches delivered during his term of office. 

According to the constitution of 1875 the Senate consists 
primarily of seventy-five life members, who in the first in- 
stance were appointed by the National Assembly. The vacan- 
cies caused by the death of life members of the Senate were to 
be filled by the Senate as they occurred. But in 1884 this 
clause was altered and the reelection of life members done 
away with. On the death of those senators still remaining from 
the previous elections, the clause in the constitution provid- 
ing for life members will be abolished. With these the Senate 
has a membership of three hundred. The candidates are 
elected for nine years, and one third of the Chamber is re- 
turned every three years. Candidates must be forty years of 
age, natural born Frenchmen, and free from anything that 
denies them their civil and political rights. Members of 
French royal families and commanders of the army or navy 
are not eligible in any case. The salary of senators is about 
13,000. Senators are chosen indirectly by elections composed of 
all the deputies of each department, all the members of the 
district councils, the Council General, and, finally, certain 
electors chosen especially for this purpose by the voters of each 
municipality, the number being regulated by the population. 
These meet to appoint one third of the Senate that becomes 
vacant at the regular period once in three years. The four col- 
onies of Martinique, Guadeloupe, Reunion, and the French 
Indies send each one senator, and the territory of Belfort has 
the same privilege. 



FRANCE. 167 

The Chamber of Deputies is at present composed of five 
hundred and eighty-four m.embers, six being returned from 
Algeria and ten from the colonies. The qualifications for 
membership require a candidate to be at least twenty-five years 
of age, a natural born Frenchman, and in possession of all 
civil and political rights. As in tlie Senate, members of 
French royal families are not eligible. Deputies were elected 
in 1875 and 1876 under the system known as the scrutin de 
liste ; that is, each elector cast his vote for as many candidates 
as his department returned to the Chamber. In 1876 this was 
changed to scrutin d^ arrondissements, a system under which 
each department was divided into arrondissements, or districts, 
these being made the unit of election. Each elector voted 
then for but one deputy. Again in 1885 scrutin de liste was 
brought back and, finally, in 1889 the election laws were again 
changed to the system of arrondissements, with the added pro- 
vision that no candidate could stand for more than two dis- 
tricts. Each candidate is for this reason obliged, at least, two 
weeks before the election, to declare what particular district he 
will stand for. All votes cast for him in other districts are 
void. If any arrondissement contains more than 100,000 in- 
habitants, it has the right to return a second deputy. Depu- 
ties receive a salary of about |1,800. 

The Senate has authority coequal with the Chamber of ini- 
tiating bills, except those relating to finance, and to pass on 
all bills originated in the Chamber. It has also, with the 
Chamber, certain advisory powers in connection with some of 
the president's prerogatives. At times the Senate resolves 
itself into a Court of Justice. The Chamber has the right to 
initiate all measures relating to finance, and all bills coming 
from the Senate go through the committee stage as in the 
United States Congress. 

The president is the executive officer. He is elected by an 
absolute majority of both the legislative chambers to serve 
seven years, and he is reeligible at the end of that time for a 
second term. His salary is about |I 20,000 and his expenses 
are met by a second grant of |120,000. He has the regular 
duties and prerogatives of the executive officer. All bills re- 
quire his signature and that of one of his ministers before 
becoming laws — the latter being enforced in order to insure the 



Executive. 



168 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



Admin- 
istration. 



Judiciary. 



irresponsibility of the president. He has the right of pardon ; 
the army is under liis command, and the appointment to 
the principal civil and military offices rests with him. He 
can dissolve the Chamber, but only with the consent of the 
Senate. Any communication with the Chamber must be made 
through one of his ministers. He must promulgate all acts 
within a month of their passage and earlier in case of urgency, 
but he has a right to cause a reconsideration before the promul- 
gation. He negotiates and ratifies treaties ; but in certain 
cases, such as the declaration of war, the consent of the Cham- 
bers is required. He appoints the members of his cabinet and 
of the Council of State. The president may be impeached 
only by the Chamber and tried only by the Senate. 

There is a ministry of ten members, who have charge of the 
different departments. They have seats in both Houses and 
the right to demand a hearing when they wish it, but they 
cannot vote. They are responsible to the Chamber and resign 
on a vote of want of confidence. They advise the president 
in his affairs, and they can be impeached only by the Cham- 
ber and tried only by the Senate. The ministerial portfolios 
are : war, foreign affairs, instruction and fine arts, justice and 
worship, finance, marine, public works, agriculture, commerce, 
interior. 

The Council of State is a relic of the Napoleonic times. 
Under the presidency of the minister of justice it gives advice 
and opinions when required. 

The civil laws of France are based on the Code Napoleon^ 
which was compiled by the emperor Napoleon I., and which 
has been enforced since then. Justice is under the adminis- 
tration of the minister of justice. At Paris the highest court 
of appeal is the Court of Cassation, which is composed of a 
president, three assistant presidents, and forty-five councilors. 
The appeal to this court is from the twenty-six courts of ap- 
peal which are distributed throughout the country, each con- 
sisting of a president and four councilors. The police tribu- 
nals are, in general, the courts of the* first instance. Justices 
of the peace have extensive authority in cases not involving 
more than |15 without a jury. The case is given them in 
secret and they send it on to a higher court or decide it them- 
selves as they see fit. There is a juge de paix in each canton. 



Army and 



FRANCE. 169 

France is divided into eighteen military departments, and 
there is a division of the army at each department with a gen- Navy. 
eral at its head. These departments are divided into smaller 
divisions of the same area as, the arrondissements. The army 
is composed of all the able-Kodied men in France between the 
ages of twenty and forty-five years. Substitution is not per- 
mitted. Laws passed in 1872 and later, in 1873, 1875, 1882, 1887, 
and 1889, require that a soldier shall serve three years in the 
regular active army. He then joins the reserve and remains 
there six years more. Afterwards six years are spent in the 
territorial army, and then ten more in the territorial reserves. 
This constitutes twenty-five years of more or less active serv- 
ice in the army and almost all exemption is done away with. 
The present strength of the army is as follows : 

France. 

Infantry 316,080 

Cavalry 68,010 

Artillery 79,758 

Engineers 11,439 

Train 7,947 

Staff, schools, etc 15,753 

Police and Republican Guard. 25,252 



Algeria. 


Tunis. 


41,411 


9,079 


8,630 


1,943 


2,779 


716 


759 


329 


3,174 


1,047 


2,004 


336 


1,086 


155 



Total 524,239 59,843 13,605 

This gives a total of the army at 597,687 men and officers, 
and with the 600,000 men of the territorial army, there is a 
grand total of over a million men who could be made use of 
in time of war. 

The navy is composed of volunteers and conscripted ma- 
rines, and there is a list kept ready of from 150,000 to 180,000 
names of men between the ages of eighteen and fifty years 
who are engaged in a sea-faring life and who are liable to a 
service corresponding to that of the reserves in the army. The 
navy at present is composed of the following vessels : 

Armor-clads 50 

Cruisers 7 

Torpedo boats 148 

Other vessels unprotected 227 

Total 432 

The French also have perfected a method for transporting 
an enormous number of troops by sea in a short time, which 
would be a great advantage in the event of war with Ger- 
many, because of the now almost invulnerable fortifications 
on the German frontier. 



170 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



Local gov- 
ernment. 



History 
since 1871, 



The local government in France dates back to the First Re- 
public, when the whole country was divided into eighty-six 
departments, Algeria into three, and Belfort made a territory. 
The departments are subdivided into 362 arrondissements, still 
again into 2,871 cantons, and finally into 36,125 communes. 
Each department has a prefet at its head and a council to 
assist him in the administration, all appointed by the presi- 
dent of the republic with the advice of the minister of the 
interior. The prefet may or may not take the advice of the 
council, and as a representative of the chief executive he sees 
to the administration of the laws, issues police orders, nomi- 
nates subordinates, etc. 

Each arrondissement has a sous-prefet. He has a council of 
the arrondissement {conseil d' arrondissement) to assist him, 
which has charge to a certain extent of the finances among the 
communes. There are an equal number of arrondissements in 
each department and they send delegates to a general council 
of the department. They have deliberative powers on finan- 
cial questions concerning the department, care of the roads, 
schools, etc., but their decision may be annulled by the presi- 
dent of the republic. 

Each canton has a justice of the peace. The canton gener- 
ally comprises ten communes. 

The unit of the republic — the commune — has its mayor, who 
is elected by the people and fills the office of intermediary be- 
tween the prefet and the municipal council. The latter is 
composed of from ten to thirty-six jnembers. Much of the 
work of the municipal councils, however, has to be referred to 
the prefet. 

Two days after the battle of Sedan, Paris rose and pro- 
claimed the Third Republic. Thiers, Jules Favre, Jules Simon, 
and Gambetta constituted the provisional government. Gam- 
betta escaped from Paris in a balloon and spent the winter in 
organizing armies at Tours for rescuing Paris. Everything 
resulted in defeat, however, and Paris fell in January, 1871. 

On the 8th of February elections were held for an assembly 
which should constitute a power to arrange terms of peace 
with Germany. This body sat at Versailles, but it had scarcely 
naet when the Radicals and socialists arose in Paris on the 16th 
of March and created the Commune. Again the city was be- 



FKANCE. 171 

sieged and Frenchmen turned upon themselves. Finally, 
after the most ferocious battles in the streets, Marshal MacMa- 
hon restored order in the city May 21. 

By the treaty of May 10, France gave up the two provinces 
of Alsace and Lorraine and paid five milliards of francs to Ger- 
many, and German garrisons were left in several parts of 
France to insure the payment. There was a year of uncer- 
tainty in the French capital where Thiers, the first president 
of the new republic, was vainly striving to put the govern- 
ment on a firm basis ; but on the death of Napoleon, in 1873, 
the union between Bonapartists and Bourbons that threat- 
ened the new order of affairs was broken up. A conservative 
republican element under the leadership of MacMahon was 
inaugurated, which gradually attracted to it the more conserv- 
ative portions of other parties ; and when in 1873 Thiers re- 
signed, MacMahon was chosen president in his place. The 
new president's object was to retain the Assembly that had 
been appointed to draw up the constitution, and he hoped 
that by appointing a reactionary ministry under the Due de 
Broglie and General de Cissey, to approach a point where by 
a coup d'etat^ similar to that of his imperial predecessor, he 
might gain permanent control of the governnaent. The As- 
sembly, however, was dissolved in June, 1877, owing to the 
irresistible trend of popular opinion, and in the new elections 
the Republicans were in a large majority. After trying re- 
pression and conciliatory ministries MacMahon was forced to 
resign in 1879, and Jules Gr6vy succeeded to the presidency. 

The war with Tunis, which did little to add to the glory of 
France and consumed an enormous amount of money, caused 
the fall of several ministries in quick succession. Gambetta 
became minister-president after the fall of the Ferry ministry 
in 1881, but in spite of his great popularity his nainistry fell in 
the next year on an attempt to bring in the scrutin de liste 
system of electing candidates. 

The death of Gambetta took away the chief strength of the 
parties opposing the Bonapartists, Legitimists, and Bourbons, 
and, not long after, these parties joined forces in an attempt to 
gain a majority. The fear of a Bourbon revival caused the 
introduction of a bill for the expulsion from France of all 
heirs and pretenders to the throne. After many heated dis- 



172 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

cussions the bill fell through, but the agitation caused a gen- 
eral uprising that resulted in an anarchist movement, bomb- 
throwing, trials, and imprisonments, and a formidable labor 
movement. The government in endeavoring to check the 
strikes instituted large public works for the employment of 
labor and soon fell into financial embarrassment. 

After the fall of the De Freycinet ministry in 1885, on a vote 
of want of confidence, several ministries changed places 
within two years. The Tunis war had been a severe strain on 
the country, and now the Avar in Tonquin, maintained more 
to vindicate French national honor than for any other reason, 
was more than any miinistry could sustain. The Radicals 
under the able leadership of M. Clemenceau made an almost 
irresistible opposition, and the labor strikes at Decay eville, 
Vierzon, and Paris only added to the difficulty, Brisson, Gob- 
let, and Rouvier followed each other at the head of the gov- 
ernment, and the last in 1887 formed the so-called "Cabinet 
of Republican Concentration " in the hope that he might thus 
gain a working majority. 

It was at this time that the Boulanger movement and the 
German war excitement were both put in the shade by the 
discovery that M. Wilson, the son-in-law of President Gr6vy, 
was, with others in high political and military positions, sell- 
ing badges of the Legion of Honor. Wilson was tried by the 
Senate and convicted, and, whether true or not, the presi- 
dent's honor was questioned. The excitement was intense 
and resulted in the refusal of any one to form a ministry 
under the presidency of Jules Grevy. After a long delay he 
finally resigned on the 2d of December, 1887, and on the next 
day the Chambers met and elected M. Sadi-Carnot, who was a 
compromise between Ferry on the side of the Opportunists 
and De Freycinet on the side of the Radicals. 

M. Tirard at once formed a cabinet. He was succeeded by 
Floquet in the next year, but returned in the year following. 
The fall of Boulanger, which was accomplished largely through 
the efforts of M. Constans, put the latter more before the people 
than the premier himself, and this, added to the vote of want 
of confidence on the Turkish question, led to Tirard's fall in 
March, 1890, when the fourth ministry of De Freycinet began. 

Up to 1886 General Boulanger was a man without national 



FRANCE. 173 

reputation other than that of any able general of the French 
army. He had done good service in the wars of his country 
and was appointed minister of war under the Brisson min-- 
istry. Here he gained great popularity on account of the ad- 
mirable system he introduced in the army. A duel with 
Baron Lareinty also added to his popularity, and he gradually 
became one of the most popular men in France. When the 
fall of the Brisson ministry became certain, there was some 
fear expressed that Boulanger might be summoned to form a 
war cabinet on account of his well-known hostility to the 
Germans ; but when it was found that he was not in the new 
cabinet, the populace accepted him as a still greater hero. To 
get rid of so powerful a man the new head of the war depart- 
ment sent him to the provinces to take command of the Clare- 
mont-Ferrand army corps, and shortly after his departure his 
name was up for election in four departments. According to 
the French constitution no man in a military position is eli- 
gible for election to the Chamber, and General Logerot, the 
minister of war, at once instituted an examination. He was 
told that Boulanger' s name was before the public as a candi- 
date without his knowledge or consent. But in March, 1888, 
Boulanger was discovered in Paris in disguise, and for this in- 
subordination in leaving his troops without orders he was 
cashiered and deprived of his command. 

A great deal of excitement was created, as Boulanger was 
perhaps the most popular man in France in the eyes of the 
people, and after his trial, when he had been deprived of his 
command and could therefore stand for election to the Cham- 
ber, he was returned from several departments and from the 
department of Nord by over 100,000 votes. His military im- 
provements while holding the office of minister of war and 
his bitter hatred of the Germans drew to his standard all the 
Bonapartists, Bourbons, Legitimists, etc., and the common 
people who saw in him a possible avenger of the German war. 
He added to these classes all the dissatisfied portion of the in- 
habitants of the country by entering the Chamber in June, 
1888, and demanding a ministry responsible only to the presi- 
dent, a change of the constitution, abolition of the Senate, 
etc. On the 12th of July he challenged the minister Floquet, 
and they fought with swords, Boulanger being badly wounded. 



Boulanger. 



174 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

By letting his name come up for election in a large number 
of electoral districts he secured half a million votes in the 
next election, and entered the Chamber again, demanding 
changesand denouncing the existing state of affairs. It was 
this danger of one man gaining so many votes to himself that 
caused the Radicals to bring forward a bill to prevent a candi- 
date from running for election in more than two districts. 

Boulanger had in the meantime formed the League of Patri- 
ots. They advocated a National Republican party and were 
gaining a large following for Boulanger, when, in 1889, he was 
charged with conspiring against the government, and had to 
fly from the country. 

Up to this time his popularity had been on the increase, 
owing largely to a trait in the French character which carries 
Frenchmen away in enthusiasm for military glory and the 
promise of military conquest. But his flight began his down- 
ward course. His trial proceeded and he was found guilty by 
the Senate sitting in a session as High Court. He was sen- 
tenced to exile from France and deprived of his civil rights, 
and wherever found his followers were imprisoned or exiled. 
The trial closed August 8, 1890; 

Boulanger was obliged to leave Belgium, where he still 
carried on intrigues ; and he went from there to England, re- 
turning to Belgium in 1891 to commit suicide on the grave of 
his mistress. 

President Carnot's term of office would have expired on the 
2d of November, 1894, had he lived so long, but on the night 
of the 24th of June, Sunday, in the city of Lyons, while he 
was driving in a carriage from a banquet given in his honor 
by the Chamber of Commerce to the theater he was stabbed 
by an Italian named Cesario. He died a little after midnight 
on the 25th. The assassin apparently belonged to an anar- 
chist organization, and was appointed by lot to kill the 
president in revenge for his severe measures against some con- 
victed anarchists. The Chamber met at once, and on the 27th 
of June elected M. Casimir-P6rier president of France by 451 
votes out of a possible ballot of 884 and an actual vote of 845. 

M. Dupuy's resignation was accepted the next day, but two 
days later he was returned as premier. 

The following table gives a list of the French colonial pos- 



FRANCE. 



175 



Bessions with their areas, populations, and the date when they 
were acquired by France : 



Colonial, 



Colony. 



America : 

Guiana 

Guadeloupe 

Martinique 

St. Pierre and Miquelon. 

Total 



Africa : 

Algeria 

Senegal 

S French Soudan. 

Gaboon 

Congo 

Reunion 

Mayotte 

Nossi-B6 

Ste. Marie 

Obock , 



Total 

Asia: 
French India.. 
Cochin-China 
Tonquin 



Total 

Oceanica : 

New Caledonia 

Marquesas Islands 

Tahiti and Moorea 

Raiatea 

Tubuai and Raivavae 

Tuamota and Gambler Islands. 
Wallis Island 



Total 

Protectorates : 

Tunis 

Madagascar 

Annam , 

Cambodia 

Comoro Islands... 

Sahara, Soudan, and Niger Region 



Total. 



Grand total. 



2,814,988 



Area. 


Population 


46,850 

720 

380 

90 


25,796 
165,154 
175,863 

5,983 


84,040 


372,796 


257,450 

140,000 

50,000 

267,900 

970 

143 

113 

64 

2,300 


3,910,399 

182,764 

2&3,660 

186,.500 

500,000 

165,009 

9,598 

7,803 

7,667 

22,370 


718,940 


5,275,770 


203 
23,000 
34,700 


208,303 

1,916,429 

12,000,000 


57,903 


14,196,732 


7,700 
480 
455 


62,752 

5,145 

11,181 


80 

390 

60 


881 
6,.536 
3,500 


9,165 


89,995 


45,000 

228,500 

106,250 

32,390 

800 

1,568,940 


1,500,000 
1,500,000 
5,000,000 
1,500,000 
47,000 
1,120,000 


1,980,940 


10,667,000 



30,517,293 



i Ac- 
quired. 



1626 
1634 
1635 
1635 



1830 
1637 
1880 
1843 
1884 
1649 
1843 
1841 
1643 
1864 



1679 
1861 
1884 



1854 
1841 
1880 
1888 
1881 
1881 
1887 



1881 
1887 
1884 
1862 
1886 
1890 



Algeria is the principal colony of France. It is divided into 
Algiers, Aran, and Constantine, and each section sends a sen- 
ator and two deputies to the French Chambers at Paris. The 
three departments are organized on a plan as similar as it is 
possible to make them to French departments, and all three 



176 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

are under a governor-general. All legislation other than the 
most local is carried on in the French Chambers, and the 
French government has charge of the Algerian finances. 

Tunis came under French control in 1881. The government 
is carried on by a Resident appointed by the French govern- 
ment, and, with an advisory committee or staff, he has charge 
of the administration under the advice of the Colonial Direc- 
tion at Paris. A committee is appointed from Paris to conduct 
Algerian finances. 

Tonquin and Annam came under French control after the 
desultory and unsatisfactory war which ended in 1884. The 
government of the country is practically under a French Res- 
ident, but in reality it amounts to a military power stationed 
there to protect French interests and keep up commercial rela- 
tions with the natives. The whole government is unsatisfac- 
tory and the question of the position of the French there at 
all is doubtful. To these two districts Cochin-China and Cam- 
bodia were joined in a commercial union in 1887. Cambodia 
is ruled by King Norodom, the native ruler, under the advice 
of the French government. Annam in a similar way has a 
nominal head in King Bun Can. In 1890 there were 28,556 
French officers and men stationed in Indo-China. 

The island of Madagascar lies in the Indian Ocean east of 
the coast of Africa at Zanzibar. The government is an abso- 
lute monarchy with Queen Ranavalona III. as the present 
ruler. Antananarivo is the capital city with a population of 
about 100,000. The country was conquered by Radkma I., 
organized under one government for the first time in about 
1810, and in 1820, '61, '65, '68, etc., treaties were made with 
foreign countries, and gradually a large trade has grown up 
with the world. A treaty signed between France and the 
Hova queen December 12, 1885, gave the French government 
the right to maintain a Resident and an armed force at An- 
tananarivo for the protection of Europeans, but at the same 
time the Hova dynasty retained its autonomy and complete 
control of its own domestic affairs. According to the treaty, 
France conducts all the foreign relations of Madagascar 
through her agent at the capital. England also lays claim 
to the island and has an extensive influence over the Hovas, 
and it is probable that trouble may arise between France 



FRANCE. 177 

and England over this question. There were signs of it in 
November, 1894. 

The French control in Western Africa extends along the 
western coast over Senegal, Riviere du Sud, the Bight of Benin 
Settlements, the Gold Coast, and the French Soudan. These 
are all either occupied by the French government or by coun- 
tries annexed by it, or, finally, are independent countries 
under French protectorate. 

Senegal is represented at Paris by one deputy. St. Louis is 
the chief town. 

Rivifere du Sud became a separate colony in 1890. 

The Gold Coast was cut up into a series of regularly organ- 
ized colonies in 1890, and in 1892 these were put under one 
governor appointed by the French government, and they are 
known under the general name of French Guinea. 

French Soudan is in the interior and embraces Upper Sene- 
gal and the countries about the Upper Niger. It borders on 
the eastern line of Riviere du Sud and Senegal. It is controlled 
by a grand commandant appointed at Paris. There is a pro- 
posal to govern these several colonies under the Superior 
Counsel for the Colonies, organized in Paris in January, 1891. 

In America the French possessions are in the West India 
Islands. Guadeloupe is under a governor appointed by the 
home government and he has an advisory council. French 
law is the code, and the colony sends one senator and two 
deputies to Paris. 

Martinique is ruled also by a governor appointed from Paris, 
and there are municipal councils and an appointed general 
council for the government of the colony. One senator and 
two deputies are sent to the French Chambers. St. Pierre is 
the chief town. There are also two small islands southeast of 
Newfoundland belonging to France — St. Pierre and Miquelon. 

In Oceanica, New Caledonia is a penal colony in the Pacific 
Ocean, and there are other dependencies of France in the 
neighboring islands. The government is entirely in the hands 
of a governor with a military force of 3,476 men. 

The Society Islands and similar groups are called the French 
Establishments in Oceanica. They are under a commandant- 
general who has a council to assist and advise him in carrying 
CD the government. 



GERMAN EMPIRE. 



RULERS SINCE 1800. 

Francis 1806 

Confederation of ttie Rhine .....1806-1815 

German Bund 1815-1866 

North German Confederation 1866-1871 

Williara 1 1871-1888 

Frederick 1 Marcli-June, 1888 

William II June, 1888- 

HEADS OF THE DEPARTMENTS OF THE EMPIRE. 

Chancellor of the Empire Prince Hohenlohe 

Minister of Foreign Affairs Marshal von Bieberstein 

Minister of Interior Dr. von Botticher 

Minister of Navy Vice-Admiral Hollmann 

Minister of Justice A..Nieberding 

President of the High Court of the Empire Von Ohlschlager 

Minister of Treasury Count von Posadowsliy-Wehner 

Minister of Posts Dr. von Stephan 

Minister of Railroads Dr. Schulz 

TABLE OF STATISTICS. 



State. 



Area. Pop. 



Prussia 

Bavaria 

Wiirtemberg 

Baden 

Saxony 

Mecklen burg-Schwerln 

Hesse 

Oldenburg 

Brunswick 

Saxe- Weimar 

Mecklenburg-htrehtz ... 

Saxe-Meiningen : 

Anhalt 

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 

Saxe-Altenburg 

Lippe 

Waldeck 

Schwartzburg- 

Rudolstadt 
Schwartzburg- 

Sondershausen 

Reuss-Schleitz 

Schaumburg-Lippe 

Reuss-Greitz 

Hamburg 

Liibeck 

Bremen 



Alsace-Lorraine. 



Total 208,732 49,428,470 



134,463 

29,282 

7,528 

5,821 

5,787 

5,135 

2,965 

2,479 

1,424 

1,388 

1,131 

953 

900 

755 

511 

469 

433 

863 

333 
319 
131 
122 
158 
115 
99 

5,668 



Capital, 

Berlin 

Munich 

Stuttgart 

Carlsruhe 

Dresden 

Schwerin 

Darmstadt 

Oldenburg 

Brunswick 

Weimar 

Neu-Strelitz 

Meiningen 

Dessau 

Coburg-Gotha.. 

Altenburg 

Detmold 

Arolsen 

Rudolstadt 

Sondershausen 

Gera 

Biickeburg 

Greitz 



29,957,367 1 
5,594,982 
2,036,522 
1,657,867 
3,502,684 

578,342 

992,883 

354,968 

403,773 

326,091s 
97,978 

223,832 

271,963 

206,513 

170,864 

128,495 
57,281 

85,863 

75,510 

119,811 

39,163 

62,754 

622,530 

76,485 

180,443 

I (Strausburg 
1,603,506N Miilhausen 
(Metz 



Reich. Bund. 



17 
6 
4 
3 
4 
2 
3 
1 
2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 



62 



236 

48 

17 

14 

23 

6 

19 

3 

3 

3 

1 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 



1 

1 
1 
1 
1 
3 
1 
1 

15 



407 



178 



GERMAN EMPIRE. 



The German Federation or Empire is situated in the central 
part of Europe, bounded on tiie east by Russia and the Austro- 
Hungarian Empire, on the soutli by Austria and Switzerland, 
on the west by France, Luxemburg, Belgium, and the Nether- 
lands, and on the north by the German Ocean, the Baltic 
Sea, and Denmark. The emperor, William 11., is the third 
emperor under the new empire founded in 1871, January 18, 
and he entered upon office at the death of his father, the 
Emperor Freder- 
ick, on July 8, 1888. 
The empire is a fed- 
eration of twenty- 
five states and free 
cities with Alsace 
and Lorraine un- 
der the crown of 
Prussia as emperor. 

The history of 
Germany since 1815 
has been one of 
continual growth 
from monarchical 
toward constitu- 
tional government, 
and of the unity of the many Central European states under 
one head. In 1806 the Emperor Francis abdicated from his 
office as emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, and Central 
Europe was left without a head. After Napoleon had fallen, the 
Congress of Vienna was called together to settle all European 
disputes and define boundaries. Then came a federation of 
the German states under the guidance of a Diet of sixty-five 
members and a committee of seventeen which filled the 

179 







History 

from 1815 

to 1870. 



180 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

places of ail Upper and Lower House. Austria presided at all 
sittings, and the powers of these two bodies were curtailed as 
much as possible in order to leave greater independence to the 
individual states. In time of war the federation put itself 
under the guidance of the Diet entirely, and this central 
authority settled the difficulties between the states. The 
kingdoms of Denmark and the Netherlands had each a mem- 
bership. Owing to the unsettled condition of affairs and the 
incomplete powers given it, the federation soon lost caste. 

It was not long before a reaction from the settlements 
agreed upon by the sovereigns at the Vienna Congress set in, 
and- the people of Germany began to think and act for them- 
selves. The students all over the north and south of Germany 
formed a party of reform, demanding free press, universal 
suffrage, individual constitutions, etc., and in 1818 they won a 
constitution in Bavaria. In the next year Wiirtemberg fol- 
lowed Bavaria's example. To curtail this republican tendency 
Metternich, prime minister of Austria, called the Carlsbad 
Congress in August, where the monarchical idea was enforced. 
Censorship of the press followed, and the rule of princes was 
pushed forward on all sides. From that time until 1830 there 
was a conflict between the two parties, ever growing stronger 
and fiercer. On the whole, through the influence of Metter- 
nich, the monarchical idea gained the ascendency. He 
formed a union between Austria, Prussia, and Russia, called 
the " Holy Alliance," which had fot its object the destruction 
of constitutions and the enforcement of the rule of irresponsi- 
ble ministries. Assemblies were closed ; the rights of the press 
were curtailed, and in all parts of Germany the student 
element of free thought was suppressed. 

All through the years from 1830 to 1848 there came indi- 
vidual cries for freedom of speech and suffrage. It was the 
modern demand of each man to be allowed to govern him- 
self, fighting against the medieval practice of making the 
mass of humanity subservient to a few hereditary princes, and 
it came naturally from the growth of popular education. At 
a meeting in 1847, Heppenheim, an advanced leader in the 
south, proposed a representative government for all Germany. 
This was followed at Heidelberg on March 5, 1848, by a self- 
assembled meeting which decided to call a national congress 



GERMAN EMPIRE. 181 

to consider a proposition of a parliament of the many inde- 
pendent states of Germany. The result was the famous 
National Assenably at Frankfort, which came together May 1, 
1848, and was composed of three hundred and twenty dele- 
gates. 

This was the first body of reformers that had gained any 
standing, and it was the first result of the struggles since 1816. 
The old German Diet had already lost caste. John, archduke 
of Austria, became president of the Assembly and adminis- 
trator of Germany, and all seemed to promise well for a solu- 
tion of the great question. Unfortunately for the peace of 
Germany, the Assembly never came to any satisfactory con- 
clusions, though it sat for many months, on account of the 
fact that it could not settle who and what should be the head 
of Germany itself. Out of the discussions, however, grew 
two parties that ruled the politics until 1871. Germany must 
be united. This could be accomplished in one way by putting 
Austria at the head of the Confederation or in another by 
throwing out Austria altogether and forming a union under 
Prussia ; and thus the Great and Small German parties were 
formed. Caused partly by the elections for the National 
Assembly, and partly by the same ideas that suggested the 
Assembly itself, an era of popular feeling and the demand for 
popular sovereignty gained the ascendency in 1848-49. It was 
the same in all Eufope. After the February Revolution in 
Paris, there came a revolution in Germany. In Vienna, on 
the 13th of March, the students gained control of the city. 
Emperor Ferdinand was forced to abdicate. Immediately 
following came similar scenes in Prague, and on the 18th a 
revolution broke out in Berlin. King Frederick William IV. 
was forced to grant a constitution to Prussia which went into 
effect February 26, 1849. 

At this point Prussia began to take a more important place 
in German affairs. The line between the Great and Small 
German parties was being ever more sharply drawn, and it 
was now a contest between Austria and Prussia for the leader- 
ship. Count Bismarck of Prussia had been at the National 
Assembly and had there made up his mind that the only way 
to unite Germany was to create an authority strong enough to 
compel obedience to its will, and then to unite the many 



182 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

states into a confederation under its leadership. He proposed 
to make Prussia that power. From 1850 to 1871 the growth of 
that power was the direct outcome of Bismarck's policy, and 
it became the final means of accomplishing the German 
Empire. Meetings of princes occurred at Erfurt in May, 1849, 
and later at Dresden and Olmutz — all striving to come to some 
settlement as to the central government of the Confederation. 
Finally a settlement came through another matter. 

The Schleswig-Holstein question is a difficult one to under- 
stand, and is to-day of little importance. It was, however, 
the cause of open hostilities between Austria and Prussia, and 
the consequent settlement of the difficulties arising from their 
rivalry. Prussia and Austria took possession of both Schles- 
wig and Holstein on behalf of the Confederation, which 
claimed jurisdiction over both, by force of arms in 1864, on 
account of a dispute in regard to the question of succession 
there. Christian IX. was obliged to sign a treaty ceding both 
duchies to Prussia and Austria jointl3\ Hence Prussia and 
Austria came to rule in the north in common. This could not 
last long when the two powers were rivals, and it was less 
than two years before Prussia, charging Austria with breaking 
the treaty in calling an assembly in Holstein on her own au- 
thority, interfered and forced her to declare war. Meantime, 
in 1861, William, the future emperor, had become king of 
Prussia and with the aid of Bismarck as- chancellor had been 
steadily increasing and strengthening the army, so that in 
1866 Prussia was able in seven weeks totally to defeat Austria 
by one of the most remarkable campaigns in histor3\ The 
fighting was in Saxony and Hanover, and after the battles of 
Miinchengratz and Koniggratz in Julj^, Austria was com- 
pelled to sign the treaty of Prague and go out of the German 
Confederation. This established the success of the Small 
German partj^, and on February 24, 1867, the North German 
Confederation was formed with Prussia at its head and all the 
small states of Northern German^" as members. Bavaria, 
Wiirtemberg, and Baden still held aloof, but they formed 
treaties with the Confederation. 

From that time until 1870, Prussia was increasing in power 
and the Confederation was uniting within itself more firmly 
until the final act toward the unification of all Germany 



GERMAN EMPIRE. 183 

came in the war with France. Napoieon III. was hos- 
tile to Prussia and its wonderful growth ; and in his uncertain 
position as usurper in France, he was obliged to win some vic- 
tory to impress his power upon the French and keep their 
confidence. An opportunity offered itself in the neutraliza- 
tion of Luxemburg, which was contrary to Napoleon's wish ; 
and, finally, when William I. refused to prevent one of his own 
family, Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, from becoming king 
of Spain at Napoleon's solicitation, war was declared on the 
15th of July, 1870. Prussia at once sent her forces to Stras- 
burg and Metz, and after the defeat of the French at Saar- 
briick and the retreat to Metz, came the three fights about the 
city which ruined that portion of Napoleon's army. The 
final fight at Sedan on September 2, and the surrender of , 
Paris on January 28, 1871, ended the war. Bavaria, Wiirtem- j 
berg, and Baden immediately joined the North German Con-j 
federation on January ]8 at Versailles in offering the crown of) 
emperor to King William, and Germany was united at last 
under one head. France ceded Alsace and Lorraine to Ger- 
many and paid fi ve milliards of francs as a war indemnity. 

The constitution of the empire, adopted at the close of the 
war with Austria in 1867, was accepted with few changes on Constitu- 
April 16, 1871, by all the twenty-five states of the empire. It 
is unique in history, being as it is a union of states of differ- 
ent forms of government under an hereditary head with im- 
perial powers. After the preamble and the list of states in the 
Confederation, the constitution provides that all federal laws 
take precedence over state laws. Equal rights are to be held 
by citizens of all the states. The matters over which the leg- 
islative part of the government has |urisdiction_ are then 
classified under fifteen heads. They include all j urisdiction 
in the matter of posts and telegraph, railroads, waterways, 
military and naval affairs, measures of public health, and a 
common system of weights, measures, and money ; also the 
establishment of measures relating to the rights of citizens 
and foreigners within the empire or their movements be- 
tween the states or into and away from the frontier ; the es- 
tablishment of laws for the purpose of revenue and customs 
or internal taxes, of banking, patent and copyright laws, and 
the protection of German commerce abroad by consular repre- 



184 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



Bund- 
esrath. 



Reichstag. 



sentation ; finally, the establishment of a coninion code for 
the punishment of crime and for civil procedure, the enforce- 
ment of judicial documents in the different states, and the 
protection and care of traffic on interstate waterways and 
roads. The legislative part of the imperial government is in 
two houses, the Fed^al Council (Bundesrath) and the House 
of Representatives (Reichstag). 

The Bundesrath is composed of sixty-two members, who 
are appointed by the governments of the difierent states, each 
state having a certain number in proportion to its magnitude 
and having only the number of votes equal to its member- 
ship. Any member may propose motions and the presi dent 
must bring them before the body. The chancellor of the em- 
pire is the president, and the Bundesrath sits with closed 
doors . It appoints seven permanent committees, viz., army, 
navy, taxation, commerce, railways, post and telegiaph, 
justice, and finance, and the appointments are so arranged 
that two states at least are represented in each committee 
exclusive of the president. The Bundesrath meets annually, S 
and no man can be a member of both Houses at once, though j 
the members of the Upper House can take seats in the Reichs-) 
tag. ^ 

The Reichstag meets annually also and is composed of three 
hundred and ninety-seven members elected by universal suf- 
frage about one to every one hundred and seventeen thousand, 
but if a member receives any government office he must be 
reelected to the Reichstag. The debates are gublic^ anjdj;er- 
batim reports are published. The Reichstag can propose 
measures and send them up to the Bundesrath, as well as any 
petitions submitted to it. Its term is five years (before 1890 
three years). It can only be ^issolved^by a vote of t he Bund- 
esrath, and must then be summoned within sixty days and 
meet again within ninety days of dissolution. The Reichstag 
regulates the power of its members under the constitution, 
and the members are free from any indemnity or arrest, unless 
taken in the act, while in active service. All votes are by ab- 
solute majority of the total number of members, and as each 
member represents the whole country he cannot be held by) 
any decree of his electors or of any one else. No member, asj 
such, receives any salary. I 



GERMAN EMPIRE. 



185 



The supreme authority is hereditary in the crown of Prussia, 
and the emperor has the right to receive and credit foreign 
ambassadors and emissaries, curtailed somewhat by the advice 
I and consent of the Bundesrath. He calls the Bundesrath and 
^ Reichstag together and dismisses them. He appoints the 
chancellor of the empire and with him the ministers of state. 
The emperor sees to the execution of the laws after they have 
passed both Houses, and he has the power to bring forward 
bills in the Reichstag and in the Bundesrath. In his office of 
executor of the decrees of the legislatures he has authority to 
carry them out in all the states, even to the use of force. > 

In the matter of customs the empire is a unit and all legis- 
lation is for all parts of the country, except in the free cities of 
Hamburg^^remen, and Liibeck, and they are at present free 
within their small city limits. Federal authority, also, has 
the legislation of tariff and excise on all kinds of produce. 
The expenses are estimated by a budget voted by the two 
Houses in advance and submitted annually. In case of need, 
the exchequers of the several states may be drawn upon or a 
loan negotiated by the passage of a federal law. The em- 
peror is obliged to render an account of receipts and expend- 
itures annually. 

There is a circuit court ( Amtsgericht) in each large township, 
over which are Landsgerichte with a right of revision over 
the decisions of the Amtsgerichte. The Oberlandsgerichte 
stand above these in turn and are twenty-seven in number, 
extending over certain large tracts of land that sometimes 
include several states. The final court of appeals and for 
] trial of cases of treason — the Supreme Court of the empire — 
^is situated at Leipzig where there are seventy-nine judges 
appointed by the emperor with the consent of the Bundes- 
rath. They are divided into four criminal and six civil sen- 
ates. 
The emperor as the executor of the empire appoints the 
♦ ministers, who are responsible and who by custom resign 
when a vote is passed in both Houses against them, or when 
their advice is not followed. These have charge under the 
chancellor of the different departments of state. They are : 
the minister of foreign affairs, minister of interior, of justice, 
of finance, of the post and telegraph, and of the navy. These 



Emperor. 



Judiciary. 



Admin- 
istration. 



186 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

ministers do not, however, constitute a_cabinetj because much 
work is done by the permanent committees in the Bundes- 
rath. 

Tlie German army is the most thoroughly organized and 
Army and scientifically arranged body of men in the world. It is com- 
Navy. posed in time of peace of 492,000 men and officers, and in time 
of war of 2,234,631, counting all branches. These are divided 
into nineteen Corps d'Armee, besides a Prussian Guard ; and 
they are distributed through the empire, eleven in Prussia and 
the rest among the other states. Every German who is 
seventeen years old and able-bodied is liable under the con- 
stitution of the empire to service, and but for the peace limit 
would be obliged to serve seven years — three in active service 
and four in the reserves. Besides these seven years, he is 
obliged to belong to the Landwehr for five years more and to 
appear for drill for several weeks during each year. Owing to 
the necessity of having the army distinctly under one head, 
the Reichstag votes the money for its support once in seven 
years instead of annually. This is known as the Septennate. 
Germany has seventeen fortified towns of the first class and 
nineteen more of different sizes and strength, and they are 
connected by underground telegraph wires and by a strategic 
system of railroads. The distribution of the different branches 
of the army are given in the accompanying table : 

Description of troops. Officers. Men. 

Infantry 11,641 335,727 

Cavalry 2,350 66,149 

Field artillery 2,369 49,111 

Foot artillery 728 17,253 

Pioneers 588 12,976 

Train 299 6,905 

Special formations 460 2,869 

Staff, etc 2,227 235 

Total peace footing 20,662 491,225 

Since 1871, the German navy has had a large growth. The 
increase in colonial possessions has called for a navy to protect 
German commerce and German interests abroad. The follow- 
ing table gives the strength in detail : 

Battleships 14 

Ironclads 14 

Cruisers 43 

Torpedo boats 141 

212 
The number of seamen, officers and men of all kinds, is 18,469*. 



GERMAN EMPIRE. 187 

The state constitutions of Germany tiave come down from 
feudal times and they have, therefore, totally different tra- 
ditions and sources. The final union in 1871 found a hetero- ftSSions" 
geneous group of independent states, therefore, so jealous of 
their prerogatives that it was necessary to make as few 
changes as possible in each case. The Prussian constitution, 
however, is a sufficiently good example to suggest the others. 
In the early part of the century there existed only an irre- 
sponsible ministry, as in all German duchies, with a council 
aiDpointed by the king. After the revolution in March, 1819, 
came the grant from Frederick William IV. of a constitution. 
It went into effect in January, 1850, and remains substantially 
the same to-day, supplying a basis for the formation of the 
imperial government. The king appoints a council, includ- 
ing a president — since 1871 he is also chancellor of the empire, 
a vice-president, and a minister of the interior, a secretary 
of state for the interior, a minister of war, of public works, of 
agriculture, of justice, of worship and finance, and these are 
all responsible to and removable by the king. 

The Herrenhaus, or the House of Lords, includes princes, 
nobles, distinguished persons raised to the peerage, representa- 
tives of the universities and of the church, and burgomasters 
of the large towns. There are also some members appointed 
by the crown not necessarily for life. The Abgeordnetenhaus 
contains four hundred and thirty-two members, elected at the 
rate of one for every sixty-six thousand inhabitants. Their 
system of elections is, however, different from that in the 
empire ; for the citizens vote by classes for electors, who in 
turn vote for the representatives instead of having direct 
suffrage by the people. 

The other states of the empire are governed as follows : 

Baden secured a constitution in 1818 which is renewed in a 
similar form to-day. There are two Houses, the Upper House 
being of an uncertain quantity of princes, officers of the 
church and of universities, etc., the Lower House of sixty- 
three members elected by universal suffrage. Elections occur 
once in four years and the Chambers meet twice in that time. 
There are four responsible ministers. 

Bavaria had a constitution in 1818 also, but it was soon dis- 
solved. It is now renewed with two Houses, of which the 



188 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

Reichsrathe, or Upper House, is composed of princes, officers 
of the church, and hereditary nobles ; and the Lower House 
of one hundred and fifty-nine members chosen by electors. 
The king is the executive with a responsible ministry of six 
members. 

Wurtemberg obtained its constitution in 1819. There are two 
Houses. The Herrenhaus is hereditary and the Lower House 
contains ninety-six members, partly elected by suffrage and 
partly composed of officers of the church, state, and universi- 
ties. The king has a permanent committee with a council of 
six to assist him. 

Saxony has its constitution from 1831 and by revision from 
1849. There are two Houses, the Upper being practically 
hereditary, the Lower of ninety members, half from the 
cities and half from the rural districts. The king has admin- 
istrative and legislative powers as well af^ executive, and there 
is a responsible ministry. 

Hesse has two Chambers, the Lower of fifty members, and a 
responsible ministry. 

Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz are governed 
by an unwieldy body of seven hundred and twenty-two mem- 
bers, composed of landowners and nobles. The whole govern- 
ment is a relic of feudal times. Four ministers are responsible 
to the grand-dukes. 

Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubeck are, within their small area, 
free cities, governed by an elected body of burgomasters. The 
limits and powers of Hamburg were curtailed in 1887, and all 
three cities will in all probability at some future date be 
absorbed by the kingdom of Prussia. They still retain their 
independence, however, and are small republics within them- 
selves. 

Alsace and Lorraine are imperial jgrovinces directly under the 
rule of the federal Parliament and presided over in the name 
of the emperor by a stadtholder and an Upper House of twelve 
members appointed by the emperor for three years. There is 
a Lower House of fifty-eight members elected by a limited 
suffrage. The inhabitants until within a few years have 
voted bodily against the empire and their enforced allegiance, 
and in the Reichstag their fifteen representatives have, until 
1887, voted unanimously against the government, but of late 



GERMAN EMPIRE. 189 

there are signs of a division of opinion among them though 

the majority is still strong against the government. 

The history of Germany since 1871 is best followed briefly in 

the three or four important questions which have consumed History 

since i8?i. 
the attention of all interested in the political growth of the 

empire. After 1871 it became the work of the government to 
foster the unity and peace of the empire. Under the aged 
emperor, William I., and Prince Bismarck as chancellor, the 
establishment of a universal system of money, weights, and 
measures was the first work. These acts had to be discussed 
in the Reichstag and the feeling in the south of Germany, 
still strong against Prussia, added to the difference of faith, 
quickly created several parties among the menabers. The 
Prussian members, strongly in favor of the government, 
formed the Conservative ; the Catholics formed what has been 
called the Center ; li^ose desiring a more liberal interpretation 
of the laws of prcL censorship, worship, education, etc., 
formed the National Liberal party, and gradually the old 
republican-student sentiment throughout the empire created a 
party called the Social Democracy, which includes many of 
the dissatisfied and radical members. There are several sub- 
divisions, but these four parties substantially represent the 
great party divisions. The following table gives an approxi- 
mation of the party divisions in each election since the forma- 
tion of the empire : 

1871 187U 1877 1881 188U 1887 1890 

Conservatives 50 21 40 53 77 78) "3 f 74 

National Liberals 116 150 126 46 117 93V-£^ 17 

Center 57 94 96 98 108 103J =3 (i07 

Social Democracy 2 9 12 13 24 11 ^ 35 

Party of Progress 44 49 35 35 

German Imperialists 38 31 38 28 30 39 21 

Liberal Imperialists 29 

Alsace and Lorraine 15 15 15 15 14 10 

Independents 27 15 20 15 10 10 17 

Poles 13 13 14 16 16 13 16 

Vacant 6 ... 1 1 

Total 382 397 397 397 397 397 397 

In 1887, to secure the passage of the seven-year budget for 
the army, the Conservatives, the National Liberals, and the 
German Imperialists combined at the elections in order to 
gain a greater number of voters and representatives. This 
Cartel, or Bund, was and is still called the Cartel party. 

On the 9th of March, 1888, the emperor died. Prince Fred- 



190 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

erick, who succeeded him, had been siifFering from what 
finally proved to be cancer of the larynx and he only survived 
his father a few months, leaving behind little work done, but 
having called forth a great veneration from his subjects on 
account of his peaceful, lenient spirit and his deep love for his 
countrymen's welfare. He died June 15, 1888, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son William, who took the title of William II. 
The young emperor is a soldier following the policy of his 
grandfather. He spent the first year and a half of his reign 
in traveling and visiting other crowned heads in Europe. In 
the spring of 1890 a disagreement between him and the aged 
chancellor caused Bismarck's resignation and the appointment 
of General von Caprivi, who had been chief of the admiralty 
for several years. 

The principal question since the formation of the empire 
has been that of the position of the Catholics and the pope 
with reference to the government throughout the empire. 

The formation of the Center, or Catholic party, was the 
commencement of the struggle. Its original grew out of the 
refusal of the emperor, in 1871, to acknowledge the doctrine 
that the pope was infallible and that he had the right claimed 
under the old empire to enforce decrees in temporal matters 
Kuitur- contrary to the laws of the empire. The specific cause of 
the trouble grew out of several acts similar to that of the 
bishop of Eruland who excommunicated a man who refused 
to give credence to the infallibility doctrine. The bishop was 
summarily dismissed from his office by the state because of his 
contempt for its authority and disregard of free thought, and 
then followed the dismissal of the Catholic department in the 
ministry of public worship and education. Herr Falk, on 
January 17, 1872, was appointed to succeed Muehler in the 
position of minister of education and worship, because he was 
more in sympathy with the government. Then began a series 
of legislative acts replacing the authority of the state where 
the Catholics had exercised power over people of their faith in 
temporal matters. A law for the inspection of schools by the. 
state was passed first. At this the pope refused to receive 
Cardinal Hohenlohe as German ambassador in May, and 
when in June the Jesuits and similar branches of the Catholic 
Church were expelled from all Germany, the contest became 



kampf. 



GERMAN EMPIRE. 191 

an open one between the emperor and the pope. Was the im- 
perial authority to be supreme, or was it to allow a power to 
exist in its midst that it confessedly was obliged to obey ? The 
next ten years was one long contest upon that point. I-n 1873, 
in the month of May, Herr Falk, at Bismarck's dictation, 
brought forward and carried in the Reichstag what are known 
as the May Laws, the repeal of which was the one task of the 
Center party in the Reichstag from that time forth. These 
May Laws made the discharge and exile of bishops legal when 
they acted against the decrees of the existing government. 
They made it obligatory that every bishop be educated in a 
gymnasium, according to the regular German system, and 
they established an imperial court for the settlement of ec- 
clesiastical difficulties. This last virtually took the decision 
in religious matters away from the church into the hands of 
the state. In 1874 a supplementary law making it criminal 
for bishops who had been dismissed to persist in exercising 
their former prerogatives, was added to the list ; for after the 
laws of 1873, the Catholic clergy at the decree of the pope 
had gone on with their work as before. Finally, in 1875, 
January 25, a law was carried through the Reichstag estab- 
lishing civil as well as religious marriage. 

It became necessary to pass an act in March, 1875, prohib- 
iting any payment to bishops who had not put in writing 
under oath their promise to obey all the laws of the state, 
and on February 10, 1876, the legislation against the Catholics 
finally reached its height in a law making it a criminal of- 
fense to use the pulpit for political purposes. Pius IX. issued 
an encyclical against the emperor and denied his right to 
make any such decrees, and the affair seemed likely to take 
all the attention of the empire. 

At this point there came a sudden change. Pius IX. died 
in 1877. Leo XIII. and his cardinal, Franchi, began in a 
more conciliatory manner, and then, too, the stability of the 
empire was much more firmly established than four years be- 
fore. There began to appear in one section and another a de- 
sire for some settlement. In May, 1878, the government filled 
several unoccupied bishoprics and Leo XIII. confirmed them 
all. At this time, several of the larger bishoprics were va- 
cant, the press was under such a surveillance that the enforce- 



192 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

meiit of the law caused constant imprisonments, and it be- 
came evident that the movement had gone too far. At the 
same time, in the Reichstag, Herr Windhorst, who was and 
had been since 1873 the indefatigable leader of tlie Catholics 
in all their opposition to Bismarck, had made so perfect a 
party organization of his followers that they could prevent 
any measure from going through tlie House that did not 
have the other parties unanimously on its side. It is partly' 
due to this obstructive power and largely to Bismarck's desire 
to put through his bills for raising revenue and for bettering 
the condition of the laboring classes, especially the tobacco 
monopoly bills, that gradually an agreement was come to 
between Windhorst and himself, so that in 1879 mutual con- 
cessions became still more the order of the day. The pope 
granted the right of the government to demand allegiance 
to the civil laws from all bishops (the Anzeigerpflicht). The 
dismissal of Falk followed on July 13, as a concession to the 
Catholics, for he had been their greatest enemy. In 1880 
things began to promise better, when suddenly Cardinal 
Franchi died and Cardinal Nina, an enemj'- to Germany, be- 
came the diplomatic minister of the church, and affairs came 
to a standstill again. Gradually, however, more concessions 
were wrung from Prussia and the enforcement of the May 
Laws was largelj^ put into the emperor's hands, with the 
power of using his personal judgment with regard to their 
strict interpretation. The fight could not be kept up, since 
the Center could prevent the government from doing any- 
thing else. It is, however, false to say that the spirit that had 
caused the May Laws in 1874 had completely died out. The 
stability of the empire was less uncertain now and the neces- 
sity for other legislation was more important. In 1881 the 
ambassador to the Holy See was reappointed, and the pope 
made some concessions. The Center joined the Conservatives 
in 1884 and Bismarck had his long-sought majority for his 
revenue laws, so that in 1886 the Kulturkampf was just where 
it had been in 1873, except that the Catholics had a party 
upwards of a hundred strong under splendid drill. An act 
was then carried taking awixy the law requiring that the 
bishops be examined by the state. Since 1887 Herr Wind- 
horst has taken every occasion to state the principles of his 



GERMAN EMPIRE. 193 

party, not with any immediate hope of bringing about their 
adoption, but to keep the matter before tlie Reichstag. He 
demanded the absolute authority of the pope in matters 
spiritual within the empire, which implies the annihilation of 
the whole legislation since 1872. The loss of their leader in 
March, 1891, was a great loss to the party. "Windhorst had 
been firm and consistent since 1873 in his demands, and it 
cannot be denied that he totally defeated the government and 
almost brought the Catholics back to the position they occu- 
pied before the formation of the empire. His death seriously 
weakens the Center for a time. 

Prince Bismarck in his contest with the Ultramontane 
party had joined himself with the Liberals to secure a large 
enough majority to defeat the one hundred members of the mocracy." 
Center in 1878. He had also previous to 1873 encouraged the 
socialist feeling among the more radical members of the 
Liberal party for the same reason. Lasalle had been a great 
friend of his up to the time of his death. Consequently the 
little party, representing some three hundred thousand voters 
in the large cities of Germany, became toward 1876 a more 
noticeable feature in the Reichstag. Wliile acknowledging 
the German emperor and their allegiance to him, they stipu- 
lated as their guiding principle the absolute freedom of the 
press, regulation of the hours of labor, public education, self- 
government, and adjustment of the relations of labor and 
capital. Such a party must necessarily contain most of the 
dissatisfied portion of any community, and there are, therefore, 
among the Social Democrats many who believe in community 
of goods, abolition of marriage, etc. They, however, do not 
represent the better class of electors in the party of the 
Reichstag. Under the patronage of the chancellor and the 
growth of the sentiment among the laboring classes, the little 
party grew until the government saw the necessity of checking 
it. It was just at this time that the two attempts on the em- 
peror's life were made. He was riding one day in May, 1878, 
on the Unter den Linden, when one Hoedel shot twice at him 
without wounding him, and on June 2 a man named Dr. Nobil- 
ing wounded him in the face. A cry at once arose all over tlie 
empire charging the socialists with the instigation of the crime 
and this became sufficient cause for legislation against them. 



194 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

There were at the time about sixty thousand socialists in 
Berlin and perhaps a half million in the empire. They had 
thirty-five newspapers and periodicals, and a large number of 
associations. In the Reichstag twelve members had been 
elected in 1877, and Herr Bebel, the leader, managed with 
his little body of followers to create considerable commotion 
at times. A bill was at once brought in against the social- 
ists, but it called forth the censure of the Liberals, because it 
pointed in several clauses to the absolute suppression of free 
speech in the empire and left to local authorities to decide 
what was " socialist " matter and what not, with the power 
to suppress it if they saw fit. On the 21st of October a modi- 
fied bill was passed, but was restricted to three years. All 
the socialist meetings and newspaper organs were to be sup- 
pressed. In Berlin alone on the first day four organizations 
and thirty-five periodicals were stopped. The same plan was 
followed throughout the empire. On May 31, 1881, the law 
was renewed for three years more without any material 
change. The little party remained about the same, but the 
beginning of Bismarck's policy for raising the revenue by the 
tobacco tax, making it a government monopoly in Germany, 
drew upon him the censure of all Liberals and among them 
the socialists, and thus the latter's vote came to be of 
more importance to him. In 1887 the feeling was still more 
in favor of the Social Democrats and it was with difficulty 
that the law was again passed. The party had eleven mem- 
bers in the Reichstag and their votes in the empire numbered 
something over a million. Labor unions and strikes occurred 
in spite of the authorities, and the Social Democrats returned 
to the Reichstag in 1890 with a party of thirty-six members. 
Publishing houses had been started in Zurich and in Geneva, 
and quantities of pamphlets were circulated from one end of 
the country to the other under the very eyes of the law. 
With such a growth the socialist law could not compete when 
in January and February, 1890, it came up for discussion 
again. A very much modified bill was proposed and failed on 
the third reading, so that on the 1st of October, 1890, the 
Social Democratic legislation and laws went back to the status 
of 1878. Nothing like freedom of speech is permitted, but 
meetings can be held and periodicals issued to a cer- 



GERMAN EMPIRE. 195 

tain extent, and the emperor has distinctly recognized the 
claims of the laboring classes and the necessity for some leg- 
islation in their behalf. In his treatment of the question and 
in Caprivi's policy in regard to the legislation for the lower 
classes, Germany has taken the foremost ground in govern- 
ment socialism within recent years. To-day, in spite of 
suppression, the Social Democracy stands with two able men 
at its head, Bebel and Liebknecht, and a party of magnificent 
organization over a million strong. 

In 1831 William I. said in his message to the Reichstag that 
he was~going to inaugurate a system of laws that should make insurance 
the social condition of the poor better. This proposal has ^^sisiation. 
crystallized into three compulsory insurance acts. 1. The first 
is known as the Act of Insurance against Sickness. It was 
proposed in 1883 and after some discussion became a law. 
Under its provisions, workmen are compelled to pay two per 
cent of their normal wages as set by civil authorities into a 
fund in the form of premiums on insurance. In return they 
are paid certain amounts in time of sickness. The payment 
is made compulsory in certain classes of work. Besides this 
two per cent, a similar amount is required from the employers 
and a third two per cent is paid by the government. 

2. The second act, known as the Compulsory Insurance 
against Accident, was proposed and carried in 1884-85. It was 
at first confined to men working for the government but has 
been extended to the different trades. Payment is required by 
the employer in ratio to the danger of the work and the num- 
ber of workmen, and the laborer pays a certain amount of his 
wages in addition. This has up to the present been sufficient 
to pay premiums. For total disability the workman receives 
two thirds of his regular wages up to four marks a day, and 
then a smaller per cent. In case of death, twenty days' 
wages are paid for the funeral, and twenty per cent to the 
widow, and fifteen per cent for each child. 

3. The third law has recently been under discussion in the 
Reichstag. It is a system of old age and infirmity insurance 
which is to be compulsory and is somewhat complex. Each 
workman has a card with forty-seven spaces on it, issued by a 
district insurance board. The employers obtain stamps from 
the post-office and affix them to the spaces, deducting certain 



Colonies. 



196 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

amounts from the man's wages. When the card is full it is to 
be filed away and a new one begun. The man must be five 
years a member before he can have any money back. The 
workmen are divided into classes arranged on a basis of in- 
come and the premiums are larger or smaller according as the 
income is large or small. From his seventieth birthday a 
workman is entitled to a pension, whether he is incapacitated 
or not, and a man who is incapacitated at any time is en- 
titled to the pension until recovery, the government giving 
him fifty marks a year. The man also receives fifty marks 
and from two to three pfennige a day, according to the class 
he is put into. It is estimated that at least eleven million 
workmen will come under the scope of the law. 

These three acts embody in themselves a principle of social- 
ism in its theoretical sense that m^akes them the most pro- 
nounced practical acts toward socialism that have been passed 
by any great power. They involve a matter of the deepest 
interest, coming as they do with the emperor's words at dif- 
ferent times during the last year or two. 

The modern German colonial system began in 1884. The 
growth of the knowledge of Africa and the interest taken in 
colonial possession by France and England had much to do 
with inducing Prince Bismarck to open a channel for colonial 
possession in that continent. The enormous emigration of 
Germans to the United States and elsewhere was one of the 
causes also. The government sought some method of keeping 
Germans under German rule. In 1884 Togoland in West 
Africa was put under German control with Porto Seguro and 
Little Popo on the slave coast. In the same year the German 
fiag was raised over the Cameroons from Rio del Rey to Bio 
Campo and for fifteen degrees inland. Then between 1884-86 
Damaraland and Namaqualand in South Africa came under 
German control. 

In East Africa the German East African Society of Usagora 
was made a protectorate in 1875 by a charter from the emperor. 
In the same year Wituland was added, and by an agreement 
with Zanzibar and Great Britain in 1886 the Germans got con- 
trol of a large tract of land along the east coast and running 
inland indefinitely. This treaty, however, and the indefinite 
extension of the protectorate inland came under discussion 



GERMAN EMPIRE. 197 

in the spring of 1890 and a new treaty was made between 
England and Germany on June 14, 1890. The boundaries now 
are from the river Umbe on the northwest, running north of 
Kilima-Njaro to the east shore of Lake Victoria Nyanza, 
across the lake westward to the Kagera River mouth, and 
following its course to 150° south latitude ; thence westerly to 
30° longitude and south to Lake Tanganyika. Following the 
eastern coast of the lake the line runs from the southern end 
to Lake Nyassa and thence by the river Rovuma to the sea. 
In consideration of the cession of Wituland and the claims of 
Germany to Zanzibar, England ceded the island of Heligo- 
land in the German Ocean to the empire. 

In 1886 the northern parts of New Guinea were made Ger- 
man dependencies called Kaiser Wilhelm Land. The Bis- 
marck Archipelago was annexed in 1885 — being the islands 
between 141° and 154° east longitude and 8° south latitude and 
the equator. In 1886 Bougainville, Choiseul, and San Isabel 
in the Solomon group, and the Providence and Crow groups 
were also brought under German control. 

In Southwestern Africa, Angra Pequef^ extends from the 
Orange River exclusive of Walfish Bay and running north to 
the river Cunene enters upon the boundary arranged with 
Portugal in 1887. _ The line runs along the river from its mouth 
eastward from Humbe Falls and then extends on a parallel of 
latitude east to the Kubango and thence on this river to a 
point on the 21st° of longitude just west of Andara, whence it 
turns south and meets the line on the Orange River. 

The colonial possessions of Germany and protectorates are 
at present as follows : 

In West Africa : Sq. miles. Inhabitants. 

Togoland, Porto Seguro, Little Pope 16,000 500,000 

Cameroons 130,000 2,600,000 

In South Africa : 

Damaraland, Namaqualand, and Angra 

Pequena 342,000 250,000 

In East Africa : 

Usagara, Uhaim, Nguru, and Usequa.... 60,0001 ^ ynr, nm 

Other territories 233,520/ i,/t)U,uuu 

Tti t'ViP "PfiiOifio * 

Kaiser Wiihelm Land 72,000 110,000 

Bismarck Archipelago 19,000 190,000 

Solomon Islands 9,000 80,000 

Marshall Islands 150 10,000 

Totals 933,150 5,500,000 



GREECE. 



King, - - - George I. 

RULERS SINCE 1800. 

Ottoman Empire 1821 

Struggle under two parties 1821-1827 

K. Capodistrias 1827-1831 

A. Capodistrias 1831-1832 

KingOtho 1832-1862 

King George 1862- 

MINISTRY. 

Minister of Finance, president of the Council Tricoupis 

Minister of Foreign Relations Stephanon 

Minister of Interior Bouphidis 

Minister of Justice Stephanon 

Minister of War... Tzamados 

Minister of Education and Ecclesiastical AflFairs , Kaliphronos 

Minister of Marine Boutoulis 

TABLE OF STATISTICS. 



Province. 



North : 

Attica and Boeotia 

Phocis and Phtliiotis .. 

Acarnania and ^tolia 
Peloponnesus : 

Argolis and Corinth.... 

Achaiaand Elis 

Arcadia 

Messenia 

Laconia 

Islands : 

Euboea and Sporades.. 

Cyclades 

Corfu 

Zante 

Cephalonia 

Thessaly : 

Arta 

Trikalla 

Larissa 

Total 



25,014 



Area. 


Population. 


2,472 
2,044 
3,013 


257,764 
136,470 
162,020 


1,442 
1,901 
2,020 
1,221 
1,679 


144,836 
210,713 
148,285 
183,232 
126,888 


2,216 
923 
431 
277 
802 


103,442 

131,508 

114,535 

44,070 

80,178 


395 

2,200 
2,478 


32,890 
143,143 
168,034 



2,188,008 



198 



GREECE. 



The kingdom of Greece occupies tlie southern part of the 
Balkan Peninsula, south of the Ottoman Empire, and the 
surrounding islands. It is bounded on the north by Epirus 
and Macedonia, provinces of Turkey, on the east by the 
^gean Sea, on the south by the Mediterranean, and on the 
west by the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. The government is a 
constitutional monarchy whose independence is guaranteed 
by Russia, England, 



and France. Athens 
is the capital with a 
population of 107,251. 
Modern Greece un- 
til 1820 was of Httle 
political importance 
to Europe. There 
were Greeks living 
in Russia, in the 
Danube provinces, in 
Turkey; and the pen- 
insula itself was di- 
vided into different 
provinces subject to 
and ruled by Turk- 
ish officials. The 
Greeks, however, 
were of a higher or- 
der than the Turks 




MODERN 
GREEC 



and made strong pretentions to culture and European civili- 
zation. Many of their young men were sent to European 
universities, and toward the end of the eighteenth century 
these men, returning to Greece, began to write and speak 
against the foreign rule that was crushing their country. 

199 



History 
since i8oo. 



200 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

The French Revolution roused the entire civilized world, and 
the sentiment of freedom and representative government 
there advanced found a kindred spirit among the Greeks. 
From the beginning of the century, therefore, there was a 
strong movement toward independence. Newspapers and 
orators occupied their time in crying out against the foreign 
oppressor. Gradually the country became honeycombed with 
secret societies advocating a war for freedom, among which 
the Haeteria was by far the largest and most powerful. 

This was the state of affairs when in 1820-21 at Janina, in 
Epirus, Ali Pasha brought about an uprising with a view to 
making himself the absolute ruler, and while the Turks were 
subduing him insurrections broke out in many places, and 
Greece north and south rose in rebellion. Two Greeks who 
stood high in the Russian court headed the revolt, General 
Hypsilantes, of the Russian army, and Count Capodistrias, a 
nainister of the tsar Alexander. The Russian government 
favored the Greek cause, since it offered them a stepping-stone 
toward the possession of Constantinople, tending as it did to 
break up the Ottoman Empire ; but just at this time Metter- 
nich, prinie minister of Austria, was at the height of his 
power, and, having control of the Holy Alliance, he per- 
suaded the tsar to look upon this revolution in the south as 
an attempt at republicanism and the overthrow of kings. 
The monarchical reaction had set in, also, after the revolu- 
tions of the second decade of the century and Alexander was 
finally persuaded to discountenance the Greek cause. 

Fighting occurred in Wallachia and Moldavia in 1821, but 
the Turks had soon dispelled the little band. From that 
time until 1832 there was a succession of bloody battles 
until the independence of Greece was assured. Horrible 
atrocities were committed against the Greeks in Constanti- 
nople ; the venerable Georgios was hung at the door of his 
church ; foreigners of other nations were treated in a similar 
manner. In Morea fighting began at the same time ; Greeks 
swore to fight side by side until either freedom or death 
came to them. In 1822 the first National Assembly was sum- 
moned at Piadia and the independence of Greece declared. 
A constitution was proposed and adopted, and the govern- 
ment was organized under a committee of five men of whom 



GREECE. 201 

Maurocordatos, the cultivated Greek, was chosen president. 

If the Greeks could have maintained unity among them- 
selves from this time on, the independence of the country- 
might have been won earlier, but a race that had been so long 
under foreign rule and whose citizens had been under despotic 
systems of government could not be persuaded at first to 
follow any one leader for a long time. Dissensions broke out 
almost immediately among the members of the committee, 
and Colocotronis refused to be influenced by the votes of the 
others. In a few months the division widened and some of 
the new parties, under the leadership of Colocotronis and 
others, opposed the government and formed a new one after 
having imprisoned some of the leaders of the other side. All 
this weakened the cause and the fortunes of war turned. The 
island of Chios was attacked by the Turks, and the inhabi- 
tants to the number of 100,000 were either exterminated with 
great brutality or sold into slavery. But within a few weeks 
the Turkish fleet was attacked by the Greek ships and com- 
pletely destroyed. By this time also the Turkish troops in 
Epirus had succeeded in overthrowing All Pasha and turned 
their attention to Greece itself, and thereupon the fighting be- 
came general. 

Attempts were made to interest Europe in the Greek cause 
by sending representatives to the Congress of Verona, but 
Metternich still held the control, and nothing could be ob- 
tained from the powers. England, however, began to counte- 
nance the war, and men like Lord Byron and Lord Cochrane 
went to Greece and did much by their example to interest the 
sympathy of European peoples for a Christian race striving to 
free itself from pagan rule. 

In spite of all this, affairs took no immediate turn in favor of 
the Greeks. The sultan finding that he could not accomplish 
anything satisfactory to himself, sent to Egypt for the assist- 
ance of Mehemet All, and in 1824 Mehemet sent his son 
Ibrahim Pasha with a large fieet against Crete. The island 
was practically annihilated ; ravages continued through 1823 
and 1824. Mesolonghi fell on the 26th of April and with it 
the central part of Greece. Morea had been captured a year 
before and all over the country the Greek cause seemed to be 
crushed for the time. In 1827 the final blow came in the fall 



202 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

of Athens and the vandal-like destruction of the Acropolis 
and the art treasures of the city. The surrender took place on 
the 7th of June. 

Then Lord Cochrane and other foreigners made an endeavor 
to unite the struggling Greeks. Capodistrias was elected 
president of Greece for a seven years' term, and at the same 
time a movement in favor of foreign intervention took form 
in Russia, England, and France, which resulted in the famous 
sea-fight at Navarino toward the end of September, 1827. 
The Turkish and Egyptian fleets were completely destroyed 
by the allied fleets of the great powers under Hey den, De 
Rigny, and Codrington. Ibrahim was forced to make a 
treaty and to agree to return with all his forces to Egypt. 
Morea was retaken by the French, and the sentiment of 
Europe, in spite of the policy of Metternich, was of unfeigned 
joy and congratulation for the Greeks. 

Capodistrias very nearly ruined all that had been done by 
trying to make himself dictator instead of president, and it 
was only through the intervention of the allied powers that 
the danger of internal revolution was avoided. They decided 
that Greece should become a constitutional monarchy and 
invited Leopold of Saxe-Coburg to become the king. Leopold 
having refused the crown it was accepted by Prince Otho of 
Bavaria. In the meantime, Capodistrias had been assassin- 
ated, his brother elected president, and civil war again pre- 
vented by the timely arrival of Otho on the 30th of January, 
1833, with 3,500 Bavarian troops. A regency was appointed 
to serve during the minority of the king, and the result was a 
series of conspiracies for the overthrow of the new kingdom. 
Out of these struggles came the representative constitution of 
1843. The boundary of Greece on the north was flxed at the 
Gulfs of Arta and Volo. Greece, however, should extend 
both by right of history and of the present population farther 
north, and the cause of many of the troubles that came later 
may be traced to this unfortunate allotment of territory. 

Peace seemed at last to have settled over the country, and a 
period of reconstruction and recovery from the vandalism of 
the Turks followed, broken only by the ever present demand 
for an extension of the boundary of Greece to the north. In 
1853 this spirit rose to fever heat during the Crimean War. 



GREECE. 203 

Russian influence was brought to bear, and there is a prob- 
abiUty that Greece would have taken an active part in the 
war had not France sent troops and a fleet to Athens and 
compelled King Otho to suppress any attempts toward such 
a movement. 

This procedure on the part of the government increased 
the already growing sense of dissatisfaction with the present 
monarch. The success of the revolution in Italy in 1860-62 
served only to increase the demand for more territory in 
Greece, and in February, 1862, the people of Nauplia rose in 
revolt. In the fall of the year Athens itself rose against the 
king. Thereupon Otho abdicated and retired to Bavaria, and 
on March 30, 1863, Prince George of Gliicksburg became king 
of Greece. He brought with him the Ionian Islands as an 
addition to Greek territory, and avowed himself in favor of 
increasing the boundaries of the kingdom. When in 1866 the 
Candiotes on the island of Crete rose in rebellion, arms and 
ammunition were sent out to them with the consent of the 
new king, and it is probable that their cause would have 
succeeded and Crete have become a part of Greece had the 
foreign powers not interfered and given Crete to the khedive 
and later to the sultan. 

The struggles of Greece to regain territory that is hers by 
historical right have been unending. Thessaly and Epirus 
are almost entirely populated by Greeks and yet they still 
remain under Turkish control. The vital reason for this is 
the same as that which has compelled the European powers 
to keep the Ottoman Empire alive. If any part of the em- 
pire is taken away by a European power the "balance of 
power " among the eastern provinces and independent states 
along the Danube will be endangered, and consequently when 
anything threatens the existing order in the East, whether 
through an attempt on the part of Greece to regain territory, 
or from any other cause, the powers interfere to prevent a 
change. In the midst of these struggles of the great powers 
to prevent each other from gaining control of the Bosphorus 
and the city of Constantinople, Greece is always compelled to 
give up her hope of regaining her territory. 

The present constitution was promulgated in 1864, but it 
was practically adopted in 1843 on the assembling of the first 



204 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

constitutional Congress. Thie government founded by King 
stituSon. Otho contained a Senate and a Boul6, or constitutional as- 
sembly, but in 1864, on the adoption of the present constitu- 
tion, the Senate was abolished. The opening article of the 
constitution declares the rights of individuals and the sacred- 
ness of private property ; it does away with all titles of no- 
bility ; trial by jury is instituted; and the freedom of the 
press, free speech, and the right of assembly are insured. 
Capital punishment is very limited. 

The legislative portion of the government is vested in the 
Legisia- kiug and a single House, the Boul6. Both the king and the 
ture. members of the Chamber may initiate measm-es, but in the 
case of the former, bills are made known to the latter through 
the agency of the ministers. The Chamber, however, has 
not the right to initiate measures proposing an increase in the 
government expenditures. When either the king or the 
Chamber rejects a bill, it cannot be introduced again in the 
same session. The Chamber also decides on the interpretation 
of the constitution in conjunction with the king, and it votes 
the army and navy bill and the budget, after these have passed 
through a committee. 

The Boule is composed of one hundred and fifty members 
according to the constitution, but this was not at first ob- 
served, and when Thessaly became a part of the kingdom the 
number of representatives was two hundred and forty-five. 
In 1886, however, owing to economical reasons and in order to 
adhere more strictly to the constitution the number was re- 
duced to one hundred and fifty. They are elected on a secret 
ballot by universal suffrage, which at present gives one voter 
to every 4.3 of the population. Each delegate represents the 
nation at large and is elected to serve four years. A candidate 
for election must be at least thirty years of age, and either 
residing or possessing property and civil rights in the eparchy 
from which he is returned. Though a representative cannot 
hold, during his term, any other office under the government, 
he may fill a military position on half pay at the same time. 

No representative can be prosecuted or arrested during the 
term of office unless taken in the act of committing crime. A 
quorum of the Chamber consists of half the members, and it 
requires an absolute majority to make a bill a law. Each 



GREECE. 



205 



measure has to be read and voted on three times on different 
days, article by article, before it can become a law. 

The executive is vested in a king and seven cabinet minis- 
ters, who are responsible to him. The king is commander-in- 
chief of the army, the authority for naming and receiving 
diplonaatic agents, and he has the usual executive functions of 
monarchs in constitutional monarchies. 

There are local courts presided over by justices of the peace, 
with appeal courts of the first instance at Athens, Nauplia, 
Patros, Corfu, Larissa, and a final Supreme Court at Athens, 
all of which are modeled on the Bavarian and French sys- 
tems. 

The Greek Orthodox Church is the state church, though 
other creeds are tolerated. 

Education is carefully fostered by the state, and appropri- 
ations are made annually for the maintenance of both primary 
and university education. There is a university at Athens, 33 
gymnasia, and 2,665 schools of different descriptions. 

The territory of the kingdom is divided into nomarchies, 
eparchies, and demarchies. The nomarchies correspond to de- 
partments or provinces, and are nominally ruled by a nom- 
arch appointed by the existing government, but governed by 
councilors elected by direct suffrage. The eparchies are more 
confined divisions and eparchs appointed by the government 
are the political heads, while representatives elected by the 
people meet in local assemblies to decide on local affairs. The 
demarchies are municipalities governed by demarchs or 
mayors elected by the people. 

The service in the army is for all able-bodied men over 
twenty-one years. It consists of two years in the regular 
army, eight in the reserves, and nine in a further reserve, sim- 
ilar to the German Landwehr — nineteen years in all. The 
army is made up as follows : 

Infantry 12,544 

Artillery 3,382 

Cavalry 1,608 

Engineers 1,485 

Others,including military schools 9,205 

Total 28,224 

There is a reserve of 104,500 men and the Landwehr consists 

of 146,000 more. The navy consists of 



Executive. 



Judiciary. 



Local gov- 
ernment. 



Army and 
Navy. 



206 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

Armor-clads 3 

Torpedo boats 29 

Corvettes 2 

Cruisers 2 

Gunboats 16 

Others 21 

Total 73 

The political history of Greece during the last twenty years 

^porS" ^^^ been unique. After 1830 the Greeks had the sympathy of 

politics, civilized Europe, and so much was written and said about 

their cause that they began to consider their country the 

most important of Europe. They considered that England 

and France had material interest in all that went on in 

Greece ; and then the hope of making Greece one of the 

great powers, of gaining Constantinople and the land between 

that city and Thessaly, became constantly more popular, until 

the outbreaks in 1866 against the Turks and the refusal of the 

other powers to interfere on the side of the patriots gave 

another turn to affairs. 

This democratic spirit, which is of inestimable value in 

itself, very often leads the Greeks to desperation. Stable, 

disciplined government is contrary to it. In Athens every 

one is a politician and there are innumerable periodicals 

which attack anything at hand in the most scandalous 

language. As a natural result of such a character, there was 

from 1865 or thereabouts up to 1882 scarcely a ministry that 

had more than a three months' existence. Several changes of 

government and elections occurred in a twelvemonth and the 

financial condition of the country — not of the best at the start 

— was naturally made worse and worse. When M. Tricoupis 

came into office again in 1882, therefore, he found the credit of 

the country almost gone. Loans had been made at seven and 

one eighth per cent, but not even this could be obtained now. 

Tricoupis has since that time done more for Greece than 

any other man. He is one of the three or four great statesmen 

of the East. He is a distinguished speaker, a great worker, and 

an upright man, who will not resort to doubtful means to 

obtain his ends. His first great work was to restore the 

public credit, which he did by adding taxation and rigorously 

paying the interest on the debt. After so many changes in 

the government it was remarkable that he should hold office 

for three years. But in 1885, taking advantage of the absence 



GREECE. 207 

from the House of some of the m.inisterial party, the Oppo- 
sition pressed a vote of censure. The chief causes for wishing 
the removal of Tricoupis were, first, his apparent lukewarm- 
ness with regard to the popular sentiment against Turkey, 
and, second, the extent of taxation and monopoly he had 
introduced to systematize the debt and make Greek credit 
respected abroad. M. Delyannis, the new premier, however, 
found himself with a majority against him and retired in a 
year (1886). Tricoupis became minister again and at once 
proceeded with his policy. Crete had again become the im- 
portant question in 1885 on account of a revolt of the Greeks 
on the island, and Tricoupis before his retirement had deemed 
it necessary to give some of his Hellenic feelings sway. He 
had encouraged the insurgents and had housed refugees. But 
when Delyannis came into office he gave the popular opinion 
full swing. The army was mobilized, nearly 100,000,000 
drachmas were spent in war preparations, and in the end 
the powers again interfered. Delyannis fell and Tricoupis 
found his financial rebuilding thrown back again. Yet, 
taking up his policy he remained in power until October 28, 
1890. Then the unwillingness of the Greek race to allow one 
man to control afiairs long and the- dislike of Tricoupis' 
discipline again had their influence. 

In the preceding year Crete again arose in rebellion against 
the Turks, owing to the increased oppressions which were 
in direct violation of the Berlin treaty of 1879. Flagrant 
violations of these stipulations caused the revolt. Fifteen 
hundred Greek Cretans came to Athens and were supported 
by the government, but these disturbances were used by the 
Opposition to influence the fall of the ministry. In the 
regular elections the Opposition promised the farmers free- 
dom from taxation on necessary materials, and the manufac- 
turers abolition of the tobacco monopolies, etc., and when the 
party of Young Greeks, with its demand for assistance for 
Crete and annexation of Macedonia became so much stronger, 
the sober policy of Tricoupis was thrown into disfavor. Tri- 
coupis resigned and Delyannis again became minister. On 
November 11, 1893, however, Tricoupis was again returned to 
power, and he immediately took up his financial policy again. 



GUATEMALA. 



President, 



J. M. Reyna Barrios. 



Historical 
sketch. 



The republic of Guatemala is the most northern of the 
Central American republics. It is bounded on the north by 
British Honduras, Mexico, and the Gulf of Honduras, on the 
east by Salvador and Honduras, on the south by the Pacific 
Ocean, and on the west by Mexico. Guatemala is the capi- 
tal, 69,796 inhabitants. The country is divided into twenty- 
two dex^artments, which are : Guatemala, Amatitlan, Escu- 
intla, Sacatepequez, Chimaltenango, Solola, Totonicapan, 
Suchitipequez, Retalhulen, Quezaltenango, San Marcos, 
Huetuetenango, Quiche, Baja Verapaz, Alta Verapaz, Peten, 
Livingston, Zacapa, Chiquimula, Jalapa, Jutiapa, Santa Rosa. 

These have a total 
population of 1,394,- 
283. The total area is 
about 46,800 square 
miles, and the pop- 
ulation probably 
exceeds the above 
figure at the present 
time, the latest 
available figures be- 
ing from the census 
of 1880. 

Before 1820 Guat- 
emala was a part of 
the great pi'ovince 
of Spain and in 1823 
succeeded, by join- 







4 "^i-VADOR 



ing Iturbide and the Central American forces, in obtaining in- 
dependence. The Central American states were at once united 
under a constitution, but when in 1827 the vice-president of the 

208 



GUATEMALA. 



209 



union was assassinated, peace was destroyed by an attack on 
Guatemala by the Salvadorians, which ended in their occu- 
pation of the country in 1829. Until 1851 Guatemala was 
under Salvadorian control. Carrera, the Guatemalan patriot, 
in that year defeated the combined forces of Honduras and 
Salvador, and gave the country independence and a constitu- 
tion that is the basis of the present one. Filling the office of 
president for life, Carrera kept the country at peace until the 
Central American war of 1863. He died in 1865 and Cerna, his 
successor, was overthrown in 1871 by Granados, the leader of 
liberalism in the state. With the rise of Granados, the Jes- 
uits were driven from Guatemala, commerce thrown open to 
the world, and treaties of friendship and commercial alliance 
signed with several foreign countries. In 1876 Guatemala at- 
tempted to hold a congress of Central American states re- 
garding a union and a common government, but the only 
result was to reopen hostilities. 

Barrios, elected in 1873, was one of the most important men 
Guatemala has known. He advanced liberal ideas and ended 
his first term in 1879 by promulgating a new constitution 
founded on that of 1851. 

The constitution instituted in 1879, on that of 1851, 
and amended somewhat in 1889, is now in force. It is 
very similar to those of the other Central and South Ameri- 
can republics. 

The legislature consists of one House, the National Assem- 
bly, to which members are elected by universal suffrage at the 
rate of one for every 20,000 inhabitants or fraction thereof 
above 10,000. Candidates must be Guatemalan citizens and at 
least twenty-one years of age. The representatives serve a 
term of four years, but one half of the House is elected every 
two years. It meets on the first of March in each year for a 
session of two months, which can be extended if so desired. 

The president is elected for a six years' term. He has the 
usual prerogatives of the executive officer ; he appoints min- 
isters who are responsible to and removable by him. The six 
portfolios are at present held by four ministers and they re- 
lieve the executive to a certain extent by making their reports 
to the Assembly direct. 

There is a somewhat unusual sj'^stem of graded courts of 



Con- 
stitution. 



Legisla- 
ture. 



Executive. 



210 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



Judiciary. 



Army. 



Contempo- 
rary events. 



which the judges are appointed by the ]president to serve four 
years. They are ehgible for reappointment. 

The military force in time of peace is 3,500 men, but there is 
a militia of 67,000 which is in constant readiness. 

Catholicism is the most common creed, but all others are 
tolerated. There are 1,327 schools for primary education, 
which is obligatory, and several high and normal schools. 

In 1880 Barrios was reelected to the presidency for a term of 
six years under the new constitution, and on February, 1885, 
he issued his famous Union Decree. In this he declared that 
he favored a union of the Central American repubhcs and that 
he should do all that he could to advance it. He bade all 
come and join him. He had won Bogran, president of Hon- 
duras, and Zaldivar, president of Salvador, over to his side, 
but Zaldivar played him false, and, finding the aristocracy of 
the state against him, he formed an alliance with Mexico, 
Costa Rica, and Nicaragua to prevent the accomplishment of 
the Barrios plan. 

On March 30, 1885, hostilities began, and General Menendez 
succeeded in partially defeating the Salvadorians, but on the 
20th of April, Barrios was assassinated and the war ceased 
with the disappearance of its cause. Not for long, however, for 
the vice-president, Barillas, became president and Menendez, 
the former general of the Guatemalan troops, now turned to the 
Salvadorians, and collecting a force proceeded against Barillas. 
He was at first successful, capturing the town of Chimalte- 
nango. Nothing came of the fighting until Menendez was 
overthrown in Salvador by General Ezeta, leader of the Salva- 
dorian party of aristocracy and independence. As provisional 
president, the latter opposed the plan for a union, and Barillas 
issued a proclamation ordering him to lay down his arms and 
dictatorship ; whereupon hostilities were at once renewed, the 
real cause being, as it had been for years, the jealousy of Sal- 
vador and Guatemala, one favoring the individual independ- 
ence, the other the unity of the five republics. 

On the 18th of July, 1890, Guatemalan troops having crossed 
the border, were defeated and forced to retreat into their own 
territory. War was declared on the 22d, Barillas announcing 
that Ezeta had forced him into hostilities. Honduras at first 
secretly and then openly favored Guatemala. 



GUATEMALA. 211 

In August more fighting took place, resulting in the defeat 
of Guatemala. At the same time Barillas became more and 
more troubled by uprisings within his own state. He caused 
a large number of Guatemalans to be put to death and brought 
himself into general disfavor thereby. 

The situation was becoming alarming for Guatemala when 
the American minister accredited to the Central American re- 
publics, L. B. Mizner, called a meeting of the diplomatic corps 
in the city of Guatemala and proposed that they endeavor to 
bring about peace by arbitration. His efforts were successful, 
the greatest difficulty being that Barillas demanded the resig- 
nation of Ezeta, which the latter refused to adhere to. Fi- 
nally, on August 26, peace was declared, both parties agreeing 
to withdraw their forces ; to reduce them to peace footing ; 
Salvador agreeing to call an election for a president within 
twenty-one days and to reinstate officers of government as 
they were before the war ; Guatemala agreeing to recognize 
the independence of Salvador and, with Salvador and Hondu- 
ras, to grant amnesty to all factions engaged in the war. 
Peace was to be renewed within three months after the ac- 
ceptance of the present agreement. The treaty of peace was 
finally signed on November 15, 1890. 

The minister of war under Barrios, Barrundia, in 1885 had 
during the war attempted to cause a rebellion against Barillas. 
He was ordered to leave Mexico where he was collecting 
troops, and departed on the Pacific mail steamship Acapulco 
for Salvador. The steamer stopped on the way at San Jos§ in 
Guatemala. She had no sooner arrived in the port than the 
Guatemalan authorities at once sent to arrest him. Neither 
the captain of the Acapulco nor the United States frigates in 
the harbor could prevent the arrest, as it was on Guatemalan 
territory. Barrundia tried to shoot the officer who came to 
arrest him and was at once shot himself by the Guatemalan 
soldiers. The affair caused some comment and an attempt 
was made on Mizner's life by Barrundia's sister, because of his 
non-interference, but the United States manifestly had no 
jurisdiction. 



HAITI. 



President, - - General L. M. F. HiPPOiiYTE. 



RULERS SINCE 1800. 

Colony of Spain 1795 

Colony of France 1795-1801 

Repubj^ic : 

L'Ouverture (president) 1801-1803 

Dessalines (president) 1803-1806 

H. Christophe (president) 1806-1810 

Emperob Henri I. (Christophe) 1810-1820 

Whole Island Republic : 

Boyer (president) ..1822-1843 

Haitian Republic 1844-1849 

Emperor Faustin I. (Soulouque) 1849-1858 

Haitian Republic 1858- 

MINISTRY. 

Minister of Foreign Affairs and Justice Ed. Espinasse 

Minister of Public Works Ducasse 

Minister of War Turenne 

Minister of Finance Marcelin 

Minister of Interior (Vacant) 



212 



HAITI. 



The republic of Haiti occupies the western portion of the 
island of that name, which is one of the largest of the West In- 
dies. The government is republican, modeled on that of the 
United States. Port-au-Prince is the capital with about 50,000 
inhabitants. 

The republic has an area of 10,204 square miles, and the 
population is estimated at from 600,000 to 800,000, it being im- 
possible under the existing government to compile any satis- 
factory census. 

The history of the present republic is closely connected with 
that of Santo Domingo.* 

In 1801 Toussaint POuverture, a native general, made him- 
self the head of the island which had been purchased from 
Spain by France in 




1795. Whereupon 
Napoleon sent 25,- 
000 men to subdue 
the island. The 
blacks were defeat- 
ed and L'Ouverture 
captured, but Des- 
salines, a remark- 
able character, suc- 
ceeded in defeating 
the French, and in- 
dependence was de- 
clared with Dessa- 
lines as governor 
for life. The atrocious administration of the government which 
all through the Haitian history of this century has been un- 
equaled elsewhere in the world, led to Dessalines' overthrow, 



Historical 
sketch. 



* See Santo Domingo. 



213 



214 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



Con- 
stitution. 



Legis- 
lature. 



and Henri Christophe, another remarkable black, gained the 
control of the country. In 1810 Christophe made himself 
emperor of Haiti, the Spaniards having in the meantime 
gained control of the eastern part of the island and named it 
Santo Domingo. Christophe built himself a magnificent pal- 
ace, Sans Souci, in the interior of the island, and an enormous 
fortress, where he lived until 1820, when on seeing that his 
power was gone and that he would soon be deposed he killed 
himself. The details of his administration are frightful. After 
Henri's death a man named Boyer gained control of the whole 
island again, and in 1822 the government of Santo Domingo 
was absorbed in that of Haiti. Boyer ruled until 1843 as pres- 
ident over the country then known as the Republic of Haiti, 
though there was little or no pretense at keeping up a repub- 
lican form of government. In 1843, however, a revolution 
overthrew him, and in the following year Santo Domingo 
again separated and set up an independent republic. Haiti 
was in a state of anarchy until iij 1846 Soulouque became 
president. He, like the others, as soon as his power became 
supreme, with the assistance of his army made himself em- 
peror under the title of Faustin I. Ever returning revolution 
again asserted its power in 1858 when the people could no 
longer endure the horrible atrocities of the government. Since 
then presidents of the republic have seldom been able to keep 
themselves in power for a full term. 

The history of Haiti is one of passion and rapine. Power is 
set up under a republican form of government, a president 
rules legitimately for a time, until by his machinations the 
army is thoroughly under him ; then he asserts supreme 
power, rules by the most infamous suppression of the popu- 
lar will, and finally the people rise in disgust and kill him. 

The present constitution was adopted in 1867 by the country 
at large, and has remained virtually unchanged since then. 
Some of its provisions have fallen into disuse and others 
have been supplemented, but in general it is maintained in- 
tact. 

There are two legislative houses, a Senate and a House of 
Representatives. The Senate is composed of thirty members 
nominated by the Lower House. They serve six years, and 
one third retire every two years. The senators must be 



HAITI. 



215 



chosen from two lists which are submitted to the House, one 
by the president and the other by an electoral college. The 
members of the House of Representatives are elected by a 
(supposed) universal manhood suffrage to serve five years, 
the only requirement for electorship being employment in 
some occupation. 

The executive is in the hands of the president, who is 
elected for a term of four years, though the term is often cut 
short and sometimes runs over its limit. He is chosen, in 
fact, by the two Houses in joint session and occasionally by 
the army, but according to the constitution he should be 
chosen directly by the people through general election. His 
powers are those in general given the executive of a republic, 
but in Haiti the president constantly usurps much more power 
than the constitution gives him. The president in his ad- 
ministration of the government has four cabinet ministers to 
assist him, who serve also as heads of departments. 

The Roman Catholic faith is the state religion. Education 
is in a poor condition. The state carries on public primary 
education and there are about four hundred national schools. 

There are 6,828 men in the. army according to a decree of 
1878 and a guard of 650 more, but the actual army varies very 
much. The navy consists of a gunboat, a corvette, and ten 
sloops. 

In 1889 and '90 an insurrection broke out in Haiti resulting 
from the election of Hippolyte. It spread from Port-au- 
Prince over the island, but was eventually quelled by the en- 
ergy of the president. Hundreds of prisoners were captured 
and beheaded day after day without trial, until the republic 
was virtually cleared of all but the party of Hippolyte. Mean- 
time, also, the United States government through commer- 
cial agents made an endeavor to gain control of the Mole of 
St. Nicholas, the best coaling station in the West Indies. 
Hippolyte, after having secured control of the government 
and suppressed the rebellion, repudiated an agreement he had 
made to grant this station to the United States, and the ne- 
gotiations carried on by Frederick Douglass fell through in 
July, 1891. 



Executive. 



Army and 
Navy. 



Contempo- 
rary 
events. 



HONDURAS. 



President, 



General D. Vasquez. 



The republic of Honduras is one of the Central American 
states, having on the north the Gulf of Honduras and the 
Caribbean Sea, on the east the Gulf of Honduras and Nica- 
ragua, on the south Nicaragua and the Bay of Fonseca, and 

on the west Guate- 



mala and Salvador. 
The capital is Te- 
gucigalpa, 12,000 
inhabitants. 

The area of the 
state is47,090 square 
miles and the pop- 
ulation is 431,917. 
There are thirteen 
departments : Te- 
gucigalpa, El Par- 
aiso, Choluteca, La 
Paz, Comayagua, 
Itibuca, Gracias, 
Copan, Santa Bar- 
bara, 1 a n c h o , 
Yoro, Colon, and 
Islas de la Bahia. 

Honduras was a 
part of the Spanish 
Central American 
colonies, until in 
1823 the latter suc- 




ceeded in throwing off the yoke and uniting in the Cen- 
tral American Union. Since then, like the other Central 
American republics, Honduras has been full of bloodshed and 



216 



HONDURAS. 



217 



internal war. On the secession of some of the republics in 
1839, the Liberal party in the state tried to bring about a 
union with Guatemala, but only hostilities resulted. Cabafios, 
president in 1855, lost his office and won exile for himself 
through his energies in the same attempt, fighting having 
again been the only result. 

His successor, Guardiola, gave up the attempt to bring about 
a union and contented himself with a treaty of alliance with 
Guatemala. He fell in 1862 from internal uprisings, and 
Montes, his successor, was obliged to flee the country in 1863 
in the midst of the Central American war. In 1864 the con- 
stitution was amended and the presidential term extended to 
four years. From that time until the administration of Gen- 
eral Bogran, beginning in 1883, no president has completed 
his full term, nor did any regular election take place. Bo- 
gran, elected to fill the place of Soto (deposed) in 1883, was 
reelected in 1887 to serve a four years' term under the revised 
constitution of 1880. 

In 1886 another and more important attempt was made at 
rebellion under the instigation of ex-President Soto, but it 
was eventually unsuccessful. The rebels, numbering seventj^- 
seven, were defeated and the four leaders shot. With this 
exception the country remained in a remarkably peaceful con- 
dition up to the time of the Central American war of 1890.^ 

Gold mines, pine forests, and the other resources have been 
and are being successfully operated by foreign and domestic 
capital, and the country is being gradually opened up by roads. 

The constitution dates from November, 1838, amended again 
in 1864, being finally put into its present form November 1, 1880. 

The legislature consists of a House of Deputies whose mem- 
bers are elected by the people, one for every 10,000 inhabitants, 
for a term of four years. Elections occur once in two years, 
half the House being each time elected. Candidates must be 
thirty years of age, natives of Central America, residents of 
the state from which they are returned, and have real estate 
amounting to $1,000. They must be fathers of one or more 
children and are not eligible for more than two terms. The 
congressional session occurs once in two years and lasts forty 
days. 



Historical 
sketch. 



Con- 
stitution. 



Legis- 
lature. 



* See Guatemala. 



218 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



Executive. 



Judiciary. 



Army. 



Contempo- 
rary 
sketch. 



The president of the republic is elected for a term of four 
years. He must be a native of Central America, with at least 
$5,000 of real estate in his possession, and must have been a 
resident of Honduras for five years. He must be thirty years 
old, at least, and the father of one or more children. 

There is a council of ministers including the secretaries of 
state, who are appointed by, and are responsible to, the presi- 
dent. 

There are two courts, one at Tegucigalpa and one at Comay- 
agua, each of three judges. There are minor courts in the 
different departments, or states. 

The standing military force consists of 500 men with a 
militia of upwards of 26,700. All able-bodied men between 
the ages of twenty-one and twenty-five are obliged to serve 
one year. 

Catholicism is recognized by the constitution, but other 
creeds are tolerated. Education is represented by two univer- 
sities and 573 schools, exclusive of several higher schools or 
colleges. 

General Bogran was strongly in favor of the party of 
Union during the Central American war in the summer of 
1890. He began to give active assistance to Barillas, but civil 
disorders at his own capital prevented him from continuing 
to do so. He was attacked and besieged in the city of Tegu- 
cigalpa, in October and November, by a force of revolutionary 
soldiers under General Sanchez, a disaffected officer, who 
chose the time when Bogran's troops were on the Salvadorian 
frontiers. Bogran finally fled from the city to save his life, 
recalled his troops from the frontier, and besieged the capital. 
On November 13 the city capitulated, Sanchez shot himself, 
and the other leaders were put to death. 

General Bogran was succeeded in 1891 by Pouciano Leiva, 
the representative of the Conservatives in the state, having de- 
feated Policarpo Bouilla, the candidate of the Liberals. There 
was a great deal of bitter feeling caused in the elections, and 
the methods used by the Conservatives to elect their candidate 
laid the foundations for another civil war. 

Leiva, however, began his term with the intention of concil- 
iating every one. Political prisoners were pardoned and Gen- 
eral Vasquez, a political exile, was recalled and given charge 



HONDURAS. 219 

of the army. After a little, however, the fear of Bouilla and 
of the exiled Liberals iii Nicaragua led to a change of policy 
and severe measures were again employed. 

In the fall and early winter of 1892 Bouilla went to Nica- 
ragua and there joined the military force under the command 
of his brother Manuel Bouilla, and together they advanced into 
Honduras. Bouilla proclaimed himself president, and the 
Conservatives under Vasquez went out to meet him. Fighting 
occurred from February 2 to March 27 around Tatumbla, re- 
sulting finally in the defeat of Bouilla. The latter, however, 
advanced on Tegucigalpa and was making a successful attack 
on the capital when Vasquez overtook him and totally de- 
feated the insurgents. Insurrections of the Liberals had 
occurred in several parts of the state on the news of Bouilla's 
success, but they now fell through and Vasquez was first de- 
clared provisional president, afterwards being elected to the 
office regularly. 

Honduras, though endeavoring to be neutral, sides dis- 
tinctly with the party favoring a union in Central America. 



ITALY. 



King, - - Humbert I. 

RULERS SINCE 1800. 

Different independent states 1859 

Confederation of states under the pope June to October, 1859 

King Victor Emmanuel II 1859-1878 

King Humbert 1 1878- 

MINISTRY. 

Minister of the Interior, president Crispi 

Minister of Foreign Affairs Baron A. Blanc 

Minister of Justice Calenda 

Minister of Finance P. Boselli 

Minister of the Treasury S. Souino 

Minister of War General St. Mocenni 

Minister of the Navy Admiral C. Morin 

Minister of Public Instruction G. Baccelli 

Minister of Public Works G. Saracco 

Minister of Posts and Telegraph J. Pinelli 



TABLE OF STATISTICS. 



Provinces. 



Piedmont 

Liguria 

Lombardy 

"Venice 

Emilia 

Marches 

Tuscany 

Roma 

Abruzzi and Molise 

Campania 

Apulia 

Potenza 

Calabria 

Sicily 

Sardinia 

Total 



110,691 



Sq. Miles. 


Population. 


11,332 


3,234,506 


2,039 


946,553 


9,075 


3,906,958 


9,059 


2,985,036 


7,921 


2,253,104 


3,746 


961,476 


9,287 


2,274,191 


4,601 


977,868 


6,669 


1,360,378 


6,948 


3,045,471 


8,541 


1,759,396 


4,122 


538,707 


6,663 


1,309,554 


11,289 


3,285,472 


9,399 


726,522 



29,565,792 



220 



ITALY. 



The kingdom of Italy occupies the peninsula extending 
from the southern central part of Europe into the Mediter- 
ranean Sea. It is bounded on the north by the Alps, on the 
east by Austria and the Adriatic Sea, on the south by the 
Mediterranean Sea, and on the west by the Mediterranean 
and France. The 
government is that 
of a constitutional 
monarchy under a 
king. Rome is the 
capital with a pop- 
ulation of 273,268. 

Italy, including 
what is known as 
Italy to-day, was 
changed more by 
the Napoleonic 
wars than any other 
country of Europe. 
Metternich, prime 
minister of Austria, 
with Russia's aid 
made practically 
what disposition of 
Italy he desired at 
the Vienna Con- 
gress. The reaction 
from the Napole- 
onic conception of government to the old feudal, monarchist 
ideas was also more marked in Italy than elsewhere. All the 
petty sovereigns of the different duchies and kingdoms were 
restored. Sicily and the kingdom of Naples were put under 

221 




Tuin 



History 
since 1800. 



222 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

the hereditary Bourbon king, Ferdinand I. The old status of 
affairs was recalled and the king governed without a con- 
stitution. Francis II., emperor of Austria, made Milan and 
Venice into a province of Austria. Archduke Ferdinand of 
Austria became grand-duke of Tuscany. Francis, his son, 
became duke of Modena, and Pope Pius VII. came back from 
his exile in France. Austria's influence everywhere was to 
" repress disorderly conduct on the part of the people and to 
put down uprisings against the newly established order of 
things." 

Thus Italy began the year 1816 in a paradoxical condition. 
A people who had tasted the joy of governing themselves in 
part, who had seen the French Revolution, now found them- 
selves suddenly ruled over by princes of medieval families, 
under laws a century old that had been made for a state of 
society long passed away ; and, finally, the people found them- 
selves confessedly governed by the armies of a foreign power — 
Austria. 

The suppressed sentiment of freedom found its outlet in 
secret societies formed to bring about the independence and the 
union of all Italy. There were the members of the Carbonari 
and the Sanfedetti^ and many other smaller organizations. 
But the people had been so long under diflferent forms of gov- 
ernment that it was impossible for these societies to combine 
on any one policy. 

The first outbreak came in Naples against Ferdinand. Gen- 
eral Pepe of the royal army became the head of a conspiracy to 
depose the king and found a constitutional government. In the 
midst of this the revolution in Spain broke out and the people 
succeeded in forcing the constitution of 1812 on the govern- 
ment. On July 2, 1820, an outbreak followed in Naples, and on 
the 9th the people, the troops, the Carbonari, entered Naples 
under the leadership of General Pepe and forced the king to 
swear to observe the Spanish constitution. The National 
Assembly met in October, and in January, 1821, the consti- 
tution was adopted. The revolt in Sicily followed, but the 
patriots went too far there and demanded a separate constitu- 
tion with only a personal union with Naples. Thereupon the 
constitutional forces at Naples proceeded against the Sicilians 
and conquered them, though they were unable to bring them. 



ITALY. 223 

to terms. Here was the greatest enemy to Italian freedom. 
The patriots no sooner gained their independence than they 
fought among themselves. Austria was quick to take advan- 
tage of the lack of unity ; nailitary forces were increased in the 
Italian provinces, and Metternich called a congress of the 
powers to confer as to the ** rebellious " people of Italy. At 
the Troppau Conference armed interference was decided upon, 
and in January, 1821, the Laibach Congress met, and King 
Ferdinand was persuaded, with the promised assistance of 
Austria and Russia, to return to Naples and abolish the con- 
stitution. 

At first there was an outbreak here and there, but 10,000 
Austrians soon quelled all signs of revolt. 

This is a sample of the procedure in the Italian penin- 
sula. 

In Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel was obliged in March, 1821, 
to resign in favor of his son, Charles Felix, because of the 
insurrections of the Constitutionalists, against whom the king's 
soldiers would not fight. Prince Charles Albert of Savoie be- 
came regent in the temporary absence of the new king. He 
was and had been confessedly in favor of the party of Young 
Italy, and on coming into the regency he adopted a constitu- 
tion reserving only his final sanction until Charles Felix 
should have accepted it. Great hopes were entertained of the 
coming representative government, when the king rejected 
the propositions, called in Austrian forces — and there, also, 
the hopes of Italy were destroyed for the time. 

The Paris Revolution of 1830 stirred Italy again, and mean- 
time the popular sentiment of a united kingdom had grown. 
Three men now came forward to whom Italy owes the prac- 
tical establishment of her independence. The first of these, 
Joseph Mazzini, a man twenty-five years of age, in 1830 
founded the party called ** Young Italy," which in one year 
grew to enormous proportions. Mazzini's ideas went as far as 
the reformation of the governments of the world, but he be- 
gan with the reformation of Italy under a constitutional mon- 
archy with the seat of government at Rome. The second of 
these, Joseph Garibaldi, was an exile from Italy, but returned 
to join the " Young Italy " party. While Mazzini was almost 
a religious enthusiast and a wonderful orator. Garibaldi was a 



224 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

man of action and a soldier. The third man was a statesman, 
who by his diplomacy in European courts gradually brought 
about the acknowledgment of Italian sovereignty. This was^ 
Cavour. 

In 1830 revolutions occurred in Modena and Parma, Gregory 
XVI. became pope and began machinations toward the rebuild- 
ing of the papal empire. But in 1831 Austrian forces invaded 
Northern Italy, and the suppression of popular will was again 
accomplished. For another decade Italy was a seething mass 
of men conspiring against the hereditary authority maintained 
by Austrian armies. 

But the sentiment of freedom was growing and the power of 
oppression was weakening year by year. In 1846 Pius IX. 
succeeded to the papacy. He granted a constitution in the 
papal states, allowed greater freedom of the press, and par- 
doned political offenders. In 1848 the revolutions of Europe 
followed each other in quick succession. Metternich fell and 
revolution broke out in the papal state. Rossi, the prime 
minister, was assassinated on the 17th of September, 1848. 
The pope was then forced to leave Rome and seek safety at 
Gaeta. Mazzini declared the fall of the temporal power of the 
papacy and proclaimed a republic in Rome. Tuscany joined 
the new republic and Leopold II. fled to Gaeta! 

But the pope applied in the same year to Louis Napoleon, 
president of France, for assistance in maintaining the integ- 
rity of the Catholic religion. Napoleon had his reasons for 
accepting the invitation. He would gain prestige and would 
also have the settlement of the Italian question in his own 
hands.* 

Consequently Italy was invaded by another foreign power, 
and on July 4, 1849, General Oudinot at the head of 35,000 
French troops forced Garibaldi to fly from Rome. The second 
foreign rule began in Italy. Pius IX. returned in April, 1850, 
but governed now without a constitution. 

At the same time another revolution broke out in Naples. 
Ferdinand II. tried to avert it by granting a constitution sim- 
ilar to that adopted in France in 1830, but the troubles of 1820- 
21 were repeated. Sicily wanted only a personal union and a 
constitution of its own. A revolt at Palermo resulted in a 



* See France. 



ITALY. 225 

siege of the Neapolitan troops. Sicily was, however, soon sub- 
dued, and the constitution again withdrawn. But the Sicil- 
ians now joined the uprising in Piedmont, a course which 
stood them in good stead later. The revolt had broken out 
in the north again, and Austria was compelled to give up all 
her Italian possessions with the exception of the four fortresses 
of Mantua, Verona, Legnago, and Peschiera, called the Quadri- 
lateral. 

Gradually it became evident to Mazzini, Garibaldi, and the 
whole of ''Young Italy," that the hopes of the unity of the 
peninsula centered about King Charles Albert of Sardinia. 
Gathering what forces he could, he had proceeded to aid the 
people of Milan. At first he was successful against the Aus- 
trian general Radetzky, but in March, 1849, he sustained sev- 
eral defeats, at Mortare and Novara, and was finally brought 
to such straits that he had to abdicate on the 23d of March in 
favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel II., who concluded a peace 
with Austria on August 6. 

A third time Italy was subdued, old princes reappeared, con- 
stitutions disappeared, and " Young Italy " was crushed again. 
This time not only Austria, but France maintained the rule of 
princes in the country. 

A change, however, soon came in the Italian struggle. Ca- 
vour became minister-president under the new king, Victor 
Emmanuel II., and he made it his work to introduce Italian 
aff'airs as important questions in the congresses of European 
powers. He attended their meetings continually. In 1856, at 
the Peace Congress of Paris, Cavour maintained that Italy 
must be peacefully settled before Europe could be really paci- 
fied, and he put his case in this form : Foreign troops should 
be withdrawn from the papal states ; Lombardy and Venetia 
should be given a constitution ; and the government of the 
Two Sicilies should be made representative and constitutional. 
Nothing came of this directly, but England and France were 
on Cavour' s side against Austria, and the power of Austria 
was beginning to decline in Central Europe. For three years 
this sentiment increased, and then, in 1859, Napoleon, now 
emperor of the French, saw his opportunity to gain glory for 
himself and diminish the power of Austria. He hoped at the 
same time, by making the kingdom of Sardinia secure, the 



226 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

papal states independent, and by giving Naples a constitution, 
to gain the name of a liberal-minded monarch, and to prevent 
the formation of a great power in the peninsula. Hence the 
Italian war between France and Austria. Cavour now began 
a tour of the courts of Europe, and had an interview with Na- 
poleon at Plombiferes in July, 1858. Thereupon the Sardinian 
war broke out. 

Austria interfered to prevent fighting and demanded the 
disarmament of the Sardinian army. The king refused. Na- 
poleon said he would maintain the integrity of Sardinia, and 
the war with Austria began on the 29th of April when the 
Austrian army crossed the Ticino River.* 

The battle of Solferino, fought on June 24, 1859, ended the 
war, which had been a series of defeats for the Austrians that 
eventually drove Austria out of Italy. Lombardy came into 
the Sardinian kingdom at the Zurich peace, and Italy was to 
become a confederation of states under the presidency of the 
pope. 

On May 6, 1859, however. Garibaldi, with the knowledge but 
not the open consent of Victor Emmanuel's government, went 
secretly to Sicily, issued a call for the people to come to his 
standard, and in the summer completely conquered the island 
and overthrew the government of Naples. The people all over 
Italy rejoiced in this success. Garibaldi for a time was dicta- 
tor, but in October Victor Emmanuel became king of the king- 
dom of the Two Sicilies, which were now a part of the kingdom 
of Sardinia. The papal states were now the only part of the 
peninsula not united under one government. On February 
18, 1861, Victor Emmanuel opened the first Italian Parliament 
in Turin. Cavour died the same year with his great work 
nearly accomplished. Then came the cry, "a free church in a 
free state." Later, in 1864, Italy made a treaty with France 
agreeing to give the pope authority in his state if French 
troops were recalled from all parts of Italy, and in 1865 Victor 
Emmanuel II. moved the capital of Italy to Florence. 

In the war of 1866 between Austriaf and Prussia, Prus- 
sia, in order to compel Austria to divide her army, and 
thus weaken her strength, wanted a treaty with the Italian 

*For this war see France and Austria. 
fSee Germany and Austria. 



ITALY. 227 

government compelling Italy to cooperate in the south with 
the Prussians in the north. Italy was quite as anxious to see 
Austria's power curtailed, and the treaty was signed. Then 
followed the war, and though the Italian forces were on the 
whole defeated, Austria was so crippled that she had to cede 
Venetia to Italy. 

The papal states still remained outside of the Italian King- 
dom, but in the peace following the war of 1870 they were 
abolished and the territory came to the Italian government, 
except the Vatican at Rome and the country seat of the pope 
at Gaeta. The pope has never signed the treaty, but it stands 
approved before the world, though the question is still the 
subject of controversy. By 1871 Italy was a united kingdom. 

The present constitution of Italy is taken from that of Sar- 
dinia, drawn up in 1848 during the period of the revolutions in ^°tion. ' 
Europe. After the establishment of the union in 1860 it was 
generally enforced throughout Italy. The constitution is that 
of a liberal constitutional monarchy. By the constitution the 
rights of individuals and of private property are insured. 
Free speech and free press and the right of unarmed assem- 
blies are allowed. Taxation is illegal except when decreed by 
the representatives of the people assembled in Parliament. 

The legislative power rests with the king and two repre- 
sentative houses assembled in Parliament. The two houses Legisla- 
are the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. Both houses ^"^6. 
may originate bills, as well as the king through his ministers, 
although money bills, budgets, etc., must always originate in 
the Chamber of Deputies. The powers of the legislative bod- 
ies are very extensive, covering all rights not given expressly 
into the charge of the local governments. 

The Senate is composed of an unlimited number of members. 
They are appointed by the king, and the requirements are that 
members must be at least forty years of age and chosen from 
twenty-one different classes of citizens, which include reli- 
gious, military, and civil officers of high standing, members of 
the royal family, ex-qfficio officers of political bodies, proin- 
inent men, etc. The president and vice-president of the Sen- 
ate are appointed by the king. Its membership at present 
consists of 335 senators. The duties of the Senate, beyond the 
legislative powers, are to execute the functions of a High 



228 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



Executive. 



Judiciary. 



Court of Appeal and Justice in cases of treason or other state of- 
fenses, the charges being preferred by the Chamber of Deputies. 

The members of the Chamber of Deputies are chosen by 
electoral colleges. The kingdom is divided into 135 districts, 
each constituting an electoral college composed of electors at 
least twenty-one years of age and paying an annual tax of 
about $4.00. Voters must be able to read and write. 

The electors choose m.embers to the Chamber, one to every 
57,000 inhabitants, by the system used in France called scrutin 
de lisie. Candidates must be at least thirty years of age. 
There are at present 508 members in the Chamber. According 
to the constitution, delegates of the Chamber represent the 
nation at large and they cannot be bound by any m^andate of 
their constituents. The term of oflSce is five years. 

Both Chambers meet simultaneously and close at the same 
time, and the parliamentary procedure is practically that of 
the French Chamber. The sittings of both Chambers are pub- 
lic and a quorum is an absolute majority in both Houses. 

The king is the executive of the government. He has the 
right of nomination to all the principal offices of the state and 
is commander-in-chief of the forces on land or sea. He ac- 
credits and receives foreign embassies and members of the 
diplomatic corps. He may propose legislation, and must sign 
all bills before they can become laws. He declares war and 
peace with the advice and consent of the legislative assem- 
blies. The king must call the Chambers together once a year. 
He may also dissolve the Lower House, but new elections 
must occur and a new Chamber be called within four months. 

The king also appoints and removes his ministers, who 
constitute the administrative part of the government. They 
have seats in both Houses, but no votes. They have the 
right of introducing measures on behalf of the king, and 
every bill having passed both Houses requires the signature of 
one of the ministers as well as that of the king before it be- 
comes a law. 

There is a graded system of courts. The local tribunals and 
courts called Pretori are the courts of first instance with gen- 
eral courts of assizes, and the highest and final court of appeal 
is the Court of Cassation at Rome. The Pretori have charge 
of crimes involving punishment of less than three months* 



ITALY. 229 

imprisonment, the correctional tribunals of cases more im- 
portant, and the assizes of all cases involving infringement 
of the external or internal rights of the state. The appeal is 
first from the Pretori to the tribunals, then to local courts of 
appeal, and finally to the Court of Cassation. There are no 
district courts of appeal. Courts of assizes and trial by jury 
were instituted in 1874. 

The fortifications are more extensive than in most other 
European countries, except Germany. The northern frontier "^JJJ^^* 
is naturally fortified by the Alps and there is a system of 
fortification for the passes being projected at present. Rome 
is a walled city and is being further fortified with an encircling 
line of forts. The difierent islands have fortifications also, 
and in the northern part of Italy many of the cities are very 
effectually provided with defenses. 

The regular array consists of 262,247 under perpetual arms, 
distributed as follows : 

Infantry 110,017 

Artillery 37,046 

Cavalry : 25,639 

Engineers 8,546 

Others 66,788 

248,036 
Officers 14,211 

Total 262,247 

There is also a reserve to the regular army divided into sup- 
plementary, auxiliary, and reserve to the amount of 583,450 
officers and soldiers, with a militia of 372,286 mobile troops and 
1,630,845 territorials. Thus the total possible strength of Italy 
is 2,848,828. The army organization is one of the most perfect 
in the world, required to be kept up at an enormous expense on 
account of the importance of the position of Italy in the midst 
of powerful states of much greater area and population. 

The Italian navy is hardly surpassed in the world. The ships 
are all of the most modern manufacture, and they consist of 
the following : 

First-class armor-clads 15 

Second-class armor-clads 19 

Other warships, all classes 10 

Torpedoboats of all classes 128 * 

Transports 17 

Other vessels 63 

Total 252 



230 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

The Roman Catholic faith is the popular religion, but the 
state has itself curtailed the powers of the Catholic Church by 
many decrees, and all other creeds are tolerated. 

The state contributes a large amount of money annually for 
educational purposes and there are twenty-one universities and 
many colleges and technical schools. Education is not, how- 
ever, well organized in Italy and attempts are at present being 
made to enforce certain compulsory primary education laws. 

The present condition of the Holy See is far below that of 
pontificate, former times. From being the temporal and spiritual ruler of 
a large part of Europe the pope has gradually come to have 
little or no temporal power. When Pius VII., in 1814, came 
back to Rome from exile after the fall of Napoleon, much of 
the old order of things was restored. He even looked forward 
to reinstating the Holy Roman Empire and its wide temporal 
power. But as the unification of Italy approached accomplish- 
ment the power of the Holy See decreased. 

Finally, in 1870, after the fall of Sedan and the setting up of 
the French Republic, it became necessary to remove the French 
troops from Rome and to leave the pope, therefore, unprotected. 
King Victor Emmanuel II., after long consultation, put the 
final cap upon the unification of Italy by advancing on Rome 
and taking possession of the city as the capital of Italy. 

A guarantee was thereupon given the Holy See known as 
"The Law on the Prerogatives of the Supreme Pontiff of the 
Holy See, and on the Relation of the State with the Church." 
This has been acknowledged by the powers, but neither Pius 
IX. nor Leo XIII. , his successor, have accepted it and the pope 
still considers himself "the prisoner of the Vatican." The 
fact, however, still remains that the temporal power of the 
papacy is gone, though, if anything, the spiritual power is 
somewhat increasing. 

The Law of Guarantees creates a doubtful state of aflTairs. 
The person of the pontiff is declared sacred and inviolable and 
any attack upon his person is tried under the laws that apply 
to sovereigns, and yet he is not a sovereign in many senses of 
the word. 

*rhe temporal power of the pope consists of the palace and 
grounds of the Vatican and the Lateran, and the country seat, 
or palace. Villa Castel Gandolfo. This property is inalienable. 



ITALY. 231 

The pontiff is also allowed a certain number of household at- 
tendants and a military Swiss guard. 

The organization of the papal government is under the pope 
as sovereign. He has a prime minister and sends envoys and 
diplomatic representatives to foreign countries. The pope 
seeks advice from the Sacred College of Cardinals, which con- 
sists of seventy cardinals theoretically, sixty-four actually at 
present. There is also a Conclave which elects the pope by bal- 
lot, a two thirds vote being required for his election. The pope 
is chosen for life and is considered by Catholics to be infallible. 

San Marino is an independent republic under Italian patron- 
age, of 32 square miles and 8,000 inhabitants. It is in the north- san 
ern part of Italy. It has a constitution and is governed by a Marino. 
Grand Council of sixty members, twenty from the patrician 
clan, twenty from the berghers, and twenty from the peasants. 

The Italian possessions in Africa are in an uncertain condi- 
tion. The governmeiit lays claim to a strip along the African Colonial, 
coast by the Red Sea that comprises the territory of Massowah 
and the Dahlak Islands, or Archipelago, and besides this the 
territory of Assab. This is estimated to have about 670 miles 
of coast-line. The Italian control rests in an historic claim. 

Obbia in 1889 became a possession of Italy. 

Abyssinia is under a protectorate of the Italian government. 
Meneleh, the king of Ethiopia, as the whole country is called, 
made a treaty with Italy on May 2d, 1889, by which the Italian 
government assures the protectorate. The Abyssinian govern- 
ment is feudal in the extreme, the king having absolute power, 
only checked by the customs of the country. Twenty-four 
feudal lords rule the different divisions of the country and are 
virtually independent within their particular territories, but 
they owe allegiance and certain taxes to the king. 

The following table gives the colonial possessions of Italy : 

Possessions. Sq. Miles. Population, 

Massowah : 

Keren and Assuera 3,100 250,000 

Dahlak Islands 420 2,000 

Assab 650 6,800 

7^yot€Ct07* Cti€ * 

Habab, Bogos, Beni-Amer, etc 18,000 200,000 

Danakil and Aussa 34,000 200,000 

Obbia, and surrounding country 90,000 300,000 

Abyssinia including Tigre, Lastfei, Amhara, 

Gojani, Shoa, Geffer, Harrar, etc 190,000 5,000,000 

336.070 5,958,000 



232 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

AftiBr the retirement of the French and the taking of Rome, 
events. King Victor Emmanuel II. opened Parliament there — now the 
new capital of the kingdom. It was a great question and has 
since remained so, what authority had the Italian state and 
what liability in case the pontiff of the Holy See should attack 
some foreign power. The Italian government is, in fact, in con- 
stant danger from this source, but up to the present there has 
been little more than occasional discussions on the subject. 
The pope himself, though held as a sovereign, is not in the 
spirit of international law a sovereign, and yet he is not a sub- 
ject of any country as he owes allegiance to no government. 

In 1873 the Longa-Sella ministry fell and was supplied by 
that of Minghetti, or a Conservative ministry. The two parties 
divided on the question of central, on the one hand, and local 
government on the other ; on the maintenance of Italy as a 
member of the great power association in Europe as against 
the party for commercial and prosperous life with as little re- 
gard to display or show, defense or war strength, as possible. 

Minghetti's ministry, however, was the last of the Conserva- 
tive governments which had held control of Italian affairs for 
sixteen years when, in 1876, the Progressists gained a clear ma- 
jority in the Chamber and the king appointed Depretis prime 
minister. The real cause for the fall of conservatism was general 
rather than particular. The ministry of Minghetti had weak- 
ened during 1874 and 1875, and at the same time the progress of 
liberalism had been very marked. The immediate fall of the 
ministry was caused by its weakness in dealing with the ques- 
tions of the disregard ecclesiastics were showing for civil law, 
and the raising of the grist tax. 

The new Parliament was largely Liberal, but the entire party 
was and has been always so divided within itself that there 
have been many changes of premiers while the party itself re- 
tained power. Depretis himself resigned in 1878 and was suc- 
ceeded by Cairoli, who had the control of the most radical 
wing of the Progressists, and then the two changed back and 
forth frequently. Among the leaders of the different branches 
of the Liberals was a man who now stands at the head of 
Italian statesmen — Crispi. 

On the 9th of January, 1878, Victor Emmanuel died and was 
succeeded by his son, Humbert, the present ruler. 



ITALY. 233 

Italy possessed a colony in the Bay of Assab in 1882, with a 
population of 1,300 souls. In 1885 this was extended to Mas- 
sowah, owing to the general fact that since England and 
France and Germany were extending their possessions along 
the Mediterranean and Red Seas, it behooved Italy to main- 
tain and preserve her right to hold a portion of this politically 
important ground. 

Difficulties at once arose with the Porte and Egypt, and hos- 
tilities opened with King John of Abyssinia and his nephew 
Debeh. After several years of fighting, and large expenditure 
of money, which caused disturbances in the Italian cabinet in 
1883-4-5, Italy finally, in 1887, took formal possession of about 
five hundred kilometers of coast-line on the Abyssinian coast 
of the Red Sea, extending from Emberemi, 16° north latitude, 
to and including the island of Massowah. 

The difficulty with the Vatican is still unsettled, but in 1887-8 
it reached the point where the relations of the Vatican and the 
pope were most strained. Pope Leo is full of concessions in 
regard to political matters, but the difficult point, and up to 
the present the point that has been without settlement, is the 
demand of Leo for the restoration of his temporal power of the 
city and states of Rome. This the Italian government refuses. 

The financial questions of Italy are almost irretrievably com- 
plicated, and they make one of the chief causes for division of 
parties. The Irredentists lay the bankruptcy of the govern- 
ment at the door of the ministry of marine and war. They say 
that the Triple Alliance compels the maintenance of army and 
navy, and they therefore oppose the Triple Alliance. On the 
other hand, its alliance with Austria and Germany is con- 
sidered a necessity by the government as a defense against the 
Franco-Russian alliance and a means of maintaining the bal- 
ance of power in Europe. 

Depretis succeeded Cairoli in 1881 and maintained the power 
until his death in 1887, when Crispi, a member of the more ad- 
vanced Left, succeeded him. Crispi fell in 1893 over the bank 
scandals, when it was proved that many representatives had 
been receiving large sums from the government banks. He was 
recalled by the king in 1894, however, when Rudini, minister 
in 1891, and after him Giolotti, in 1893, had failed to pacify 
the insurrections in Naples and Sicily. 



JAPAN. 



Emperor (Mikado), 



MUTSUHITO. 



MINISTRY. 

President Count Ito Hiroboumi 

Minister of the Interior Count InouyS Kaoru 

Minister of P^oreign Affairs M. Mutsu Monemitsu 

Minister of Justice Yoshikawa Akimassa 

Minister of Finance Watanab6 Kunitakg 

Minister of War Count Oyama 

Minister of Navy Count Saigo 

Minister of Public Instruction Inoug6 Ki 

Minister of Communications Count Kowroda 

Minister of Agriculture Count Euomotto Takeakl 



TABLE OF STATISTICS, 



Central Nippon ... 
Northern Nippon 
Western Nippon.. 

Shikoku 

Kiushiu 

Hokkaido 

Total 



Area. 


Population. 


36,600 


15,776,841 


30,204 


6,190,028 


20,681 


9,279,740 


7,031 


2,887,397 


16,840 


6,270,863 


36,299 


314,108 



147,655 



40,718,977 



234 



JAPAN. 



Japan lies in the Pacific Ocean off the eastern coast of Asia. 
It comprises a group of islands under the name of the Japa- 
nese Empire. The nearest part of the Asiatic coast is Corea. 
The government is a constitutional monarchy, and the capital 
is Tokio with a population of 1,389,684. 

Japanese history, until the arrival of Commodore Perry with History 

a fleet of American ^ since iSoo. 

vessels in 1854, was 
not known to Euro- 
peans, nor is it fully 
known yet. The 
country had been at 
peace for over two 
hundred years, and 
the policy of the gov- 
ernment had been 
to prevent communi- 
cation with the out- 
side world. The in- 
habitants were for- 
bidden to leave the 
country. In 1603 
lyeyasu was made 
shogun of the em- 
pire. He was the 
founder of the after- 
wards famous family 
of Tokugawa and a 
great organizer and 
ruler. The shogun 

was the chief of the military of the empire, and gradually, as 
member after member of the Tokugawa family succeeded to 
this position and increased its power, this officer became more 

235 




236 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

powerful than the mikado, the hereditary emperor of Japan. 
The country at the same time changed from a monarchy un- 
der the mikado to a feudal system in which the shogun was 
the most powerful of the feudal lords, and compelled the others 
to pay allegiance to him. Thus in the city of Kioto the mikado 
had all the honors of an emperor and retained his noble follow- 
ers, while at the same time at Yeddo the shogun had all the 
powerful lords {daimios) of the empire under his power, and 
was able to carry on the government himself. 

It is an important part of the Japanese character, which 
must be necessarily recognized for the better understanding of 
the events of the present century, that the people avoid any 
kind of war wherever possible. They are adverse to being 
consulted concerning the conduct of the government ; they 
naturally satisfy themselves with what they have and are 
more than willing to let themselves be governed. One of the 
chief difficulties in building up the Xew Japan has been the 
fact that the people as a whole could not be induced to take 
part in deliberations, elections, and other political rights given 
them under the present enlightened system. But that is hap- 
pily being remedied by the introduction of foreigners, and by 
the travel and study of Japanese citizens abroad. 

The rule of the shogun, however, from 1603 was so strong 
that the country remained practically at peace for two hun- 
dred and fifty years. The mikado was always treated as em- 
peror ; he performed the investiture of each new shogun, who 
was theoretically considered nothing more than his subject, 
but was in reahty the head of the government. It is some- 
what remarkable, however, that there is nowhere an instance 
of a shogun aspiring to the mikadoship. 

Besides the mikado and his court, and the shogun and his 
court, there was a large class of nobles called daimios, who 
were the feudal lords, and who, assembled in council, consti- 
tuted the great assembly to assist the shogun in his adminis- 
tration of the government. They were seldom called together, 
however. Xext in the social order came the samurai, the 
soldiers of the empire. They were originally the followers of 
the daimios and continued so in theory up to 1868. Then fol- 
lowed the agricultural classes, next the artisans, and finally 
the mercantile and trading classes. 



JAPAN. 237 

This feudal system developed more and more during the 
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and class distinction 
was sharply drawn. But after the beginning of the present 
century the gradual spread of education created a sentiment 
strongly opposed to this system, and it prepared the way for a 
change that was greatly hastened by the introduction of Euro- 
pean manners and methods. 

In^ 1853 Commodore Perry arrived at Uraga with four Ameri- 
can frigates and threw Japan into consternation at his appear- 
ance. He offered to make a treaty of peace and commerce, and 
in their dilemma the daimios, who had been called together 
for the purpose of consultation by the shogun lyeyoshi, asked 
time to consider. Perry departed saying he would return in a 
year and make a treaty or bombard the country. 

As has been said before, the state of society in Japan had been 
partially prepared for some change, and this interference of a 
foreign power and threatened danger from without came, there- 
fore, at a propitious time. The country divided at once on the 
two sides of the question, and two parties were formed: the 
Jo-iy or party of exclusion, and the Kai-Koku, or party favor- 
ing the opening of the country to foreigners. The imperial 
court at Kioto and the samurai were on the side of the former, 
but the shogun and the daimios favored the making of a treaty. 
When Perry returned in 1854, the shogun and his party favor- 
ing the signing of a treaty with the United States won the day. 
A consul-general was sent out from the United States soon after, 
and in 1858 a treaty of commerce and friendship was signed 
with the empire. 

One of the greatest scholars of Japan, the Prince of Unito, 
became the leader of the Jo-i, or Conservative party, and II 
Kamou-No-Kani at the same time became regent during the 
shogun's incapacity and took the leadership of the party of 
progress. From this time on the growth of Japan out of the 
medieval into the modern empire has taken place with great 
rapidity, and this change, which involved the complete over- 
throw of customs and laws centuries old, is one of the remark- 



* For an admirable review of the recent growth of Japan, from which much 
of this sketch is taken, the reader is referred to an article on " The Consti- 
tutional Development of Japan,' ' by Toyokichi lyenaga, in the publica- 
tion of the Johns Hopkins University, on " Studies in Historical and 
Political Science," for 1891, Vol. IX. No. 9. 



238 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

able episodes of the nineteenth century. In a measure it was 
as great a change as that involved in the French Revolution, 
and yet it was accomplished almost without bloodshed. Per- 
haps the most important reason for this lies in the character 
of the Japanese people, who, as has been intimated, are always 
adverse to war, and who invariably accept what is given them 
rather than oppose innovations. 

The change began, however, with the assassination of Kamou 
in 1860, and the shogunate, thus falling back upon the decrepit 
shogun, began to lose power. The introduction of foreign ideas 
had its influence in opening the eyes of the people, especially 
of the more thoughtful classes, and gradually the evident 
superiority of the emperor over his shogun became more mani- 
fest. A demand arose that the emperor should take the active 
administration of the government into his own hands. In 
1863 the bombardment by foreigners of Kagoshima and Shim- 
on oseki showed the daimios that their shoguns and assistants 
were quite incompetent to defend the empire from foreign in- 
vasion, and at the same time that very invasion showed the 
necessity for national defense. Thus the people turned toward 
the traditional power of the country. Men in Japan, even dur- 
ing the greatest power of the shogun, unconsciously believed in 
the heaven-sent right of the emperor to rule, and now in their 
danger they turned to him to find a defense from their enemy 
and reorganization for their own government. The presence 
of enemies made a demand for better government ; better gov- 
ernment meant power ; power could only be gained by unity, 
and thus the wise men of the land saw the necessity of uniting 
the people under one head. Here was the first blow against 
feudalism. 

Discussions arose on all sides, and the daimios, instead of as- 
sembling once in years- as formerly, now met many times in a 
single year. Modern ideas were advanced at these meetings, 
and the upholders of the old system gradually saw that they 
were being isolated. The day of the feudal lord with his petty 
stronghold, his administration of a small territory, his own 
system of money and measure, of tarifl'and justice, was depart- 
ing. 

The restoration of Shintoism was another great factor that 
led toward the return of the emperor to power. The Shinto 



JAPAN. 239 

religion recognizes the emperor as a direct descendant of the 
gods and Japan as the Holy Land. Consequently, as the re- 
ligion became stronger the reverence for the emperor returned, 
and with it came the desire to put him in his true position. 
Thus the Restoration began in Japan and continued peacefully 
until 1867. 

In that year there was some fighting in and about the cities 
of Yeddo and Kioto. Three strong clans, the Satsuma, the Cho- 
shu, and the Tosa, joined forces in the defense of the emperor. 
The fighting against the Tokugawa dynasty was not of a very 
vigorous nature, nor was the resistance great, for on the 19th 
of November, 1867, before any serious battles had taken place, 
the last of the shoguns voluntarily resigned his office and 
transferred all his power into the emperor's hands. This took 
the spirit out of the revolution at its outbreak and the result 
was foreseen from the first. 

The next step in the growth toward constitutional govern- 
ment was the formation of the new administration. The court 
was transferred from Yeddo to Kioto, the latter city being by 
far the more important, and the name Kioto was changed to 
Tokio. After long discussion and careful weighing of different 
systems it was decided to resume, with some changes, the form 
of government that had been enforced in Japan before the in- 
troduction of feudalism and the shogunate. 

The Sosai was to be the premier of the nation, or supreme 
administrator. He was to be assisted by a vice-Sosai. This 
Sosai was the head of the Gijio, or Supreme Council of the 
empire, composed of ten members, five chosen from the 
daimios and five from the Kuges, and they constituted an 
advisory cabinet to the Sosai. 

The Sanyo was an associate council of men chosen from the 
daimios and the samurai, and in the present constitution it 
has developed into the cabinet. 

The government in itself was divided into what corresponds 
to departments under European governmental systems, such 
as the administrative department, the department of public 
worship, of the interior, of foreign affairs, of war, finance, 
justice, and legislation. 

In this formation of the New Japan under the Restoration 
after 1868 the most important man was Toshimitsu Okubo. It 



240 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

was his object to increase the power of the imperial govern- 
ment as far as possible, and then to introduce representative 
legislatures and rule of the people by the people. It was he 
who caused the removal of the capital to Kioto. His influence 
was most powerful in bringing about the emperor's decree of 
April 17, 1869, in which it was declared that as soon as it was 
deemed feasible for the welfare of the country, Japan was to be 
granted five inalienable rights, viz. : [1] a deliberative assembly, 
wherein the people should decide the questions of the empire ; 
[2] measures to be taken for the spread and study of social and 
political economics ; [3] the right of individual opinion and 
individual motive to action, which should be encouraged ; [4] 
the abolition of all the old forms and ceremonies at court and 
the destruction of feudal customs throughout the land ; and 
[5] the employment of wisdom wherever found without regard 
to caste. 

In the same year a parliament was called — the Kogisho — 
composed largely of daimios and samurai. It seems to have 
been an orderly, quiet assembly where debate was encouraged, 
but the Japanese character could not be educated at once up to 
the deliberative point. The samurai, who constituted a large 
part of the Chamber, neither realized their responsibility nor 
took great interest in the settlement of political questions, and 
the Kogisho died within the same year. 

But it had its influence for good. The discussions which en- 
sued during its short session, by exposing still further the evils 
of feudalism, aided the powerful nobles in their plans for the 
aggrandizement of the imperial power, and in 1871 a memorial 
to the emperor signed by the largest landowners among the 
daimios, declared their intention to unite their lands under 
the emperor. They forced other feudal lords to give up their 
hereditary positions within a short time. During this remark- 
able change no blood was shed, and yet the whole social system 
of the country was altered. 

At the same time, men were sent out over the world to ex- 
amine the institutions of other countries. The objection to 
foreigners gradually gave place to a desire to learn what was 
worth knowing from any country, and the result has been 
manifested by the extraordinary growth in the number of 
miles of railroads and telegraphs, in the number of newspapers, 



JAPAN. 241 

and other large commercial enterprises. These acted as a 
means of educating the people and also they brought them 
nearer together. The Japanese had to be educated to take an 
interest in their own government. "Accustomed for ages," 
writes Count Inouy6 in 1873, * ' to despotic rule, they have re- 
mained content with their prejudices and ignorance. Their 
knowledge and intelligence is undeveloped and their spirit is 
feeble. In every movement of their being they submit to the 
will of the government, and have not the shadow of an idea of 
what a right is. If the government makes an order the coun- 
try obeys it as one man." * This to a certain extent explains 
why the people of Japan could move through such changes 
without war. Fighting did occur, however, in time, and in 
1878, ten years after the great changes began, rebellion broke 
out. Riots occurred in different parts of the state, but in 
Satsuma signs of revolt had appeared in 1877. Ten thousand 
insurgents were organized into an army to usurp the power of 
the government. The greater part of the force was besieged on 
the island of Kiushiu for several months and finally extermi- 
nated. Feudalism was crushed forever and the imperial gov- 
ernment showed itself capable of being prompt and powerful. 

After the formation of the Genro-in (Senate) in 1875, parties 
began to form on simple lines, and the liberal, progressive 
statesmen formed a large portion of the people into the Ri-shi- 
sha party under the leadership of Count Ilagaki. 

It was through the energy of this party that the present 
constitution was adopted. In 1873 and 1877 they sent a me- 
morial to the emperor, begging him to keep his promise and 
introduce a legislative assembly ; and after the rebellion , of 
1878 had been put down, the government, though it did not 
call together such a body, took the first step in that direction 
by instituting local government throughout Japan in the form 
of local legislative assemblies, where, in their yearly meetings, 
delegates chosen by the people discussed local affairs and local 
taxation. Out of these assemblies, including in all 2,172 dele- 
gates, the first National Assembly was chosen. Through the 
spread of the popular voice by these agencies the demand for a 
Federal House grew still stronger, until in 1881 the emperor 
decreed the formation of a National Assembly to meet in 1890. 

*T. lyenaga. 



242 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

The present constitution of Japan was promulgated Feb- 
tion. ' ruary 11, 1889. It was the result of profound study at home 
and abroad, both with a view to the most advanced form of 
government in the world, and also with a view to the adapta- 
bility of such a government to the Japanese race. The consti- 
tution provides for the government of the country, insures 
individual rights and the right of private property, and pro- 
vides for the power of the people in legislature. 

The legislative part of the government is in the hands of a 

Legisia- Parliament and, to a certain extent, in those of the mikado. 
turc 

The Japanese Parliament consists of two houses, the House of 

Peers and the House of Representatives. They have large leg- 
islative powers ; they may address the emperor on any ques- 
tion ; and either House may initiate measures which then 
require the sanction of the other Chamber and of the emperor. 
All bills must first go through their hands, and they may 
make any representation to the government regarding the leg- 
islation of the country. They have absolute control of the 
finances and the administration of justice in the empire. 
They must assemble once at least in each year. In Novem- 
ber, 1890, the old Senate having been dissolved on the 20th of 
October, the first meeting of the Parliament occurred. 

The House of Peers is at present composed of 252 members, 
though it is intended to have a full membership of 300. These 
members are chosen from five different classes : (1) males of 
the royal family at least twenty years of age who have a li^ 
membership ; (2) princes and marquises at least twenty-five 
years of age, also having a life membership ; (3) a certain 
number of counts, viscounts, and barons of at least twenty-five 
years of age who have been chosen by their respective orders, 
and whose term is seven years ; (4) persons thirty years of age 
or more who have been nominated by the emperor, with a life 
raembership ; (5) a certain number of men at least thirty years 
of age elected from each fa or hen by the fifteen citizens in 
each district paying the highest direct national taxes. It is 
necessary for the candidates in this class to have the nomina- 
tion of the emperor also, and their term is seven years. The 
emperor nominates the president and vice-president of the 
House of Peers, and they receive a salary respectively of a little 
less than 14,000 and $2,000 which they are not allowed to refuse. 



JAPAN. 



243 



The House of Representatives is composed of 300 members. 
Ttiis number of representatives is directly stipulated by the con- 
stitution. These representatives are elected in the districts to 
serve a term of four years by electors who must be male Japa- 
nese subjects, twenty-five years of age, showing a year's resi- 
dence in the fu or ken where they vote and paying about 
$3.00 in direct taxes for one year, or the same amount for 
three years in income tax in the fu or ken where they vote. A 
candidate for election to the House of Representatives must be 
at least thirty years of age and must have the other qualifica- 
tions required by the suffrage laws, except that he is not re- 
quired to be a resident of the fu or ken from which he is re- 
turned. No member of either House is responsible for his 
opinions, and no member is liable to arrest unless taken in the 
act of crime. 

The emperor is the executive officer of the empire, and the 
position is filled by the male descendants of the royal family. Executive. 
He has the right to exercise legislative powers in certain cases 
with the consent of the Parliament. He sees to the adminis- 
tration of laws passed by the Parliament and convokes and 
prorogues both Houses. He has charge of the different depart- 
ments, of the salaries to be paid, and the appointment of officers 
in each department. He also has the right to issue ordinances 
for the public welfare which do not annul any law of the em- 
pire. He has control of the organization of both army and 
navy, and he confers honors and titles of nobility. 

There is a modern systein of judiciary in Japan founded on 
European jurisprudence. Some of the higher judges are ap- 
pointed by the emperor, but beyond these the officers of justice 
are appointed by the minister of j ustice. There is a theoretical 
system of courts which is being put into practice gradually. 
The highest court is the Court of Cassation at Tokio, which 
tries both civil and criminal appeal cases. There are next 
seven courts of appeal in as many districts, which try both 
^criminal and civil cases of appeal from courts of the first in- 
stance. These last are ninety-nine in number, or one for each 
fu or ken, and they take cognizance of minor criminal and 
most civil cases within their districts. Below these are one 
hundred and ninety-four township courts to try petty cases. 

Shintoism and Buddhism are the two most popular reli- 



Judiciary. 



244 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

gions, but there is no state religion strictly speaking, all faiths 
being alike before the law. Shintoism is, however, the church 
of the court, and Shinto temples are supported by many of the 
local governments. 
Army and The Japanese army has been reorganized as well as the gen- 
Navy, eral government. It stands upon a basis borrowed from the 
German army. All males of the empire over twenty years of 
age are liable to a three years' service in the standing army 
and afterwards to a further service of four years in the reserves. 
When this term has expired the soldier has to serve five years 
in the Landwehr, which does not require any active service in 
time of peace with the exception of a few weeks in the year. 
There is besides a Landsturm to which all belong who are over 
seventeen and under forty years of age and who are not serv- 
ing in the army in any other capacity. The standing army is 
about 80,000 strong, divided into an imperial guard of six di- 
visions ; the reserves are 96,000 strong, and the Landwehr 
70,000 more, in all 246,000. 

The navy is composed of volunteers and conscript seamen, 
the latter serving three years in active service and three years 
in the reserves. The navy is divided into three divisions (later 
there are to be five divisions), and is conaposed of the following 
vessels : 

Ironclad 1 

Coast defense 3 

Cruisers 13 

Dispatch boats 2 

Gunboats 6 

Torpedo boats 25 

Others 8 

Total 58 

There are 11 ,463 officers and sailors. 

As the time gradually approached when the constitutional 

events. houses of legislature were to be opened, parties began to form, 

and before 1890 there were several distinct party organizations. 

On the 25th of November, 1890, Parliament was opened and it 

was found that the government party, or Conservatives, was 

represented by about 120 members. Their tendency was to 

open the country to foreigners and establish relations with 

foreign countries. The opposition was divided at first, but it 

is in general termed the "Constitutional Liberal Party ''and 

consisted then of about 132 members, whose platform de- 



JAPAN. 245 

manded a reduction of the expenditures of the government 
and reduction of ground rents, revision of the constitution, 
abolition of consular jurisdiction, and expulsion of foreigners, 
together with unrestricted freedom of the press. This party- 
was called the Rikkendsehijuto and a somewhat more conserva- 
tive branch, called the Kaischiuto or "reform party," had 
forty-five members in the House of Peers. 

The first session was almost entirely taken up with dis- 
cussions over the budget. The session of 1891-2 was short and 
difficult, the great earthquake which ruined so many people 
causing another repeal of the taxation payments and budget 
in general. 

Elections occurred before the 1892-3 session and the govern- 
ment gained a little. The Liberals were, however, in a ma- 
jority, and refused to vote estimates for building ships of war. 
An address was sent to the emperor and in his answer he 
urged the vote, bringing out the importance of having the 
means at hand to defend Japan in case of war. The reason 
for the refusal of the Liberals to vote this was that the 
Japanese as a people have not yet any idea of foreign relations 
and they did not consequently see the need of a navy. The 
recent war with China has, however, no doubt done much to 
educate people on this point. 

This war* has indeed done an inestimable amount of good 
in giving the Japanese a more intimate knowledge of and in- 
terest in the outside world. During the summer of 1894 Jap- 
anese newspapers were filled with accounts of the war, and 
the use of a navy and an army has been only too well dem- 
onstrated. 

With the taking of Port Arthur in October the war practi- 
cally ended in the total defeat of China and the cession of 
Corea to Japan. Since then the military operations have 
progressed slowly, the center of war moving toward Peking, 
while negotations for peace were being undertaken. 



* See China. 



LIBERIA. 



President, 



Joseph James Cheeseman. 



Historical 
sketch. 



Constitu- 
tion. 



Liberia is on the west coast of Africa, between the river 
Jong and the river San Pedro. It extends inland for about 
200 miles. The government is a republic with the constitution 
made directly from that of the United States. The capital is 
Monrovia, a city with 5,000 inhabitants. 

There are 500 miles of coast-line in the republic, and the 
total area is estimated at about 14,360 square miles, the total 
population being 1,068,000, of which 18,000 are Liberian blacks 
from the United States ; all are black people. 

The republic of Liberia was founded as an experiment by 
the United States in 1822, in the hope of freeing the United 
States from the -immigration of negroes from Africa. The 
plan was put through by philanthropists and anti-slavery 
Americans. Until July 26, 1847, the government and the 
country was under the supervision and the direct control 
of the United States government. Then it was declared inde- 
pendent, and in the following year Great Britain recognized it 
as an independent power. After the abolition of slavery and 
after the slave trade had been abolished there in 1861, the 
United States also recognized Liberia as a sovereign state. 

Since then the republic has had an uneventful history, but 
the experiment has not met with the success that was hoped 
for by its founders. Negroes in America are better satisfied 
with their wretched condition in the south of the United 
States, than in a small isolated African republic, and the 
natives who occupy the adjacent country in Africa will have 
little or nothing to do with the attempts at civilization in their 
midst. Yet the republic stands and shows no signs of being 
abolished. 

The constitution is that of the United States in all the main 
particulars and was given the republic at its foundation in 1822. 

246 



LIBERIA. 247 

The legislative power is vested in a Senate of eight members 
elected every four years, and a House of Representatives of 
thirteen members elected every two years. These two Houses 
have the usual legislative powers. The executive power is 
represented by a president elected every two years. He must 
be thirty-five years of age and must have property to the ex- 
tent of $600. There is an attempt at a judicial system similar 
to that of the United States. 

The president is elected for a term of two years and is 
assisted by a cabinet composed of a secretary of state, of the 
interior, and of the treasury, besides an attorney-general and 
a postmaster-general. 

Religion is absolutely free, and there are a large number of 
churches in proportion to the population. Education is fos- 
tered as much as can be expected, largely by the foreign 
missions. 

The country is divided for local government into four coun- 
ties, Mezurada, Grand Bassa, Suive, and Maryland, and 
these again are divided into townships, each sixty-five square 
miles in area. The life is all in a few towns. 

There is no army, though the male population between the 
ages of sixteen and fifty are liable to military service. 



MEXICO. 



President, 



General Porfibio Diaz. 



RULERS SINCE 1800. 

Spanish control 1821 

Ten regents 1821-1822 

Emperor Iturbide (Augustine I.) 1822-1823 

Provisional government 1823-1824 

Republic 1824-1841 

Three dictators 1841-1844 

Republic 1844-1853 

Six dictators 1853-1857 

Republic 1857-1864 

Emperor Maximilian I .....1864-1867 

Constitutional republic 1867- 

MINISTRY. 

Minister of Foreign Affairs J. Mariscal 

Minister of Interior M. R. Rubio 

Minister of War and Navy P. Hinojosa 

Minister of Justice and Public Instruction J. Baranda 

Minister of Public Works M. Gonzalez Cosio 

Minister of Finance and Commerce J. J. Limantour 



TABLE OF STATISTICS. 



States. 



Aguas Calientes.. 

Campeche 

Coahuila 

Colima 

Chiapas 

Chihuahua 

Durango 

Guanajuato 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo 

Jalisco 

Michoacan 

Mexico 

Morelos 

Nuevo Leon 

Oaxaca 

Puebla 

Queretaro 

San Luis Potosi.. 

Sinaloa 

Sonora 

Tabasco 

Tamaulipas 

Tlaxcala 

Vera Cruz 

Yucatan 

Zacatecas 

Lower California 

Tepic 

Federal District.. 

Total 



Area. 



2,950 
18,087 
63,569 

2,272 
27,222 
87,802 
38,009 
11,370 
24,996 

8,917 
31,846 
22,874 

9,247 

2,773 
23,592 
35,382 
12,204 

3,556 
25,316 
33,671 
76,900 
10,072 
32,128 

1,595 
29,201 
35,203 
24,757 
58,328 
11,275 
463 



765,577 



Population. 



140,180 
93,976 
150,622 
72,591 
241,404 
225,652 
255,652 

1,007,116 
353,193 
506 028 

1,250,000 
784,108 
798,480 
141,565 
236,074 
768,508 
833,125 
203,250 
516,486 
223,684 
134,790 
104,744 
161,121 
138,478 
621,476 
329,621 
465,862 
31,467 
131,019 
475,737 



11,395,009 



Capital. 



Aguas Calientes. 

Campeche. 

Saltillo. 

Colima. 

San Christobal. 

Chihuahu.a. 

Durango. 

Guanaj uato. 

Tixtla. 

Guadalajara. 

Morelia. 

Mexico. 

Cuernavaca. 

Monterey. 

Oaxaca. 

Puebla. 

Queretaro. 

San Luis Potosi. 

Culican. 

Ures. 

San Juan Bautista. 

Victoria. 

Tlaxcala. 

Vera Cruz. 

Merida. 

Zacatecas. 



248 



MEXICO. 



The republic of Mexico lies at the south of the United States, 
on the northern portion of the isthmus joining North to South 
America. It is bounded on the north by the United States, on 
the east by the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and the At- 
lantic Ocean, on the 
south by Guatemala, 
and on the west by 
the Pacific Ocean and 
the Gulf of Califor- 
nia. The government 
is a republic of the 
advanced American 
type. Mexico is the 
capital with a popu- 
lation of 329,535. 

The sentiment of 
the country now 
known as Mexico 
was strongly against 
Spanish oppression 
in 1800. •Spaniards 
of pure birth were 
the all-powerful 
classes. Native-born 
Mexicans were downtrodden, and Indians did not come into 
the calculation of the Spanish viceroys in any way. The coun- 
try was ruled by a viceroy appointed by the king of Spain, as it 
had been for nearly three hundred years. The establishment of 
the American Republic in the United States and the breaking 
out of the French Revolution, however, had their influence in 
Mexico, as they did elsewhere in the civilized world, and they 
stimulated a longing for self-government that was already be- 
ginning to fill the minds of Mexicans. 

249 




History 
since i8oo. 



250 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

The overthrow of Charles IV. in Spain and the unfortunate 
rule of Joseph Bonaparte made the desire for independence 
from Spanish rule still stronger, and this culminated in 1820. 
Miguel Hidalgo took the initiative and declared the Grito de 
Dolores on the 15th of September, 1810. He found the people 
about him ready to follow, and with a disorganized force of 
farmers and soldiers he captured the cities of Guanajuato and 
Valladolid in October. Venegas, the new viceroy, on his arrival 
from Spain sent the royal forces against the insurgents and 
defeated them in the battle of Calderonon, on the 17th of Jan- 
uary, 1811, and Hidalgo was captured and shot. Morelos, an- 
other religious enthusiast, continued the struggle, however, 
and in 1813 he called an assembly of the representatives of the 
people at Chilpantzingo, where **the independence of the 
people from Spanish rule" was declared. Morelos thereupon 
assumed command of the forces and proceeded against the 
new viceroy, Calleja. He was soon defeated by the royalists 
under Iturbide, who afterwards became the champion of the 
people, and the congress was dispersed, Morelos being captured 
and shot in December, 1815. 

A few years later, in 1820, the insurrection in Spain that 
caused Ferdinand VIII. to adopt a constitution, made a di- 
vision among the Spaniards in Mexico. Some of them joined 
the independents, and with these, the party of the people, 
with its ever growing revolutionary contingent, became strong 
enough to carry the day. Augustine de Iturbide, the royalist 
general, was one of these. He joined Guerrero, the new Mexi- 
can leader, and taking command of all the forces set up what 
has been called the ** plan of Iguala." This stipulated (1) that 
the Roman Catholic Church was the only church in Mexico, 
and (2) that the Mexicans were to form from that time forth 
a union for the defense of the new country. The plan was 
successful, and when the last viceroy, O'Donoju, arrived, on the 
30th of July, 1821, Iturbide persuaded him to join with them 
in forming an independent government. The treaty of Cor- 
dova established a provisional junta of thirty-eight members 
in September, with Iturbide as president. 

The second Mexican Congress assembled in February, 1822, 
and the territory of the new empire ran from Guatemala to the 
northern boundaries of the United States of Texas, including 



MEXICO. 251 

what is now New Mexico, Arizona, and southern California. 
By May Iturbide had declared himself emperor under the title 
of Augustine I. His reign was short, however, for on the 6th 
of September a revolution in Vera Cruz under General Santa 
Anna began his fall, which ended in his being shot two years 
later. The changes of governments in two years had been 
something extraordinary in their rapidity, but a people thrown 
into representative self-government after so many years of 
oppression could not settle down under a stable government at 
once. It was a natural result of sudden power in inexperi- 
enced hands. 

In 1824 the first constitution was promulgated, and from 
that time until 1868 there were at least three hundred revolu- 
tions in Mexico. No government was firm, and the party 
holding the power at any one time ran wild with it. Dictator 
and president changed places several times a year. But 
through it all ran two distinct parties, which might be called 
the Conservative and the Progressive. The former held to the 
principle of a powerful church, aristocracy, and a centralized 
government in the city of Mexico ; the other maintained the 
right of the people, the ascendency and greater autonomy of 
the states or divisions of the new republic, and it believed 
in doing away with the superstitions of the church. From 
1824 to 1828 the Liberal constitution held the power under 
President Victoria. Then followed several years of constantly 
succeeding rulers, ending finally in 1835 in the ascendency of 
the Conservative church party and the dissolution of the Lib- 
eral constitution of 1824. The republic was concentrated and 
centralized in the presidency and dictatorship of General 
Santa Anna. But Texas could not be drawn into the central- 
ized government and seceded forthwith. Santa Anna fell in 
1839, and anarchy of the most marked description with ever 
changing rulers followed, until in 1844 Santa Anna again se- 
cured the control. In the next year he threw the country 
into war with the United States in an endeavor to regain 
Texas.* 

This country had been settled by Americans in the mean- 
time, and the state now declared itself an independent repub- 
lic. Under General " Sam '' Houston, an American citizen, the 

* See United States. 



252 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

forces defeated Santa Anna in 1844. This involved the two 
repubhcs of the United States and Mexico in a discussion and 
the result was the war of 1845. After the battle of Palo Alto 
on the Texan side, the fighting gradually moved southward 
until General Scott put Vera Cruz into a state of siege and 
finally captured the city on March 28, 1847. A gradual move- 
ment was then made toward the city of Puebla, which was 
occupied without any fighting. On September 13, Chapultepec 
and the city of Mexico were taken and occupied by the 
United States troops. The treaty of Guadaloupe-Hidalgo, 
signed February 2, 1848, forced the United States to pay an in- 
demnity of $15,000,000, and settled the boundary line of the 
new republic along the Rio Grande to El Paso and thence 
along an irregular line running to the west until it crosses the 
Colorado some distance above its mouth and extends to the 
Pacific. Southern California, Texas, New Mexico, and Ari- 
zona then became the property of the United States. 

Herrera and Arista, respectiveh' presidents after 1848, ruled 
quietly and peacefully until Santa Anna returned and again 
became dictator. In February, 18-57, a new constitution pro- 
posed by the Congress was adopted, and then the question that 
has formed the two great parties of Mexico from that time to 
the present day came definitely before the people. The mem- 
bers of the church party were in favor of having the enormous 
tracts of land owned by the church left in their charge, and 
the Liberals wanted to secularize it. The secularization took 
place eventually, but the two parties have remained since then 
divided bj' this principle. 

Benito Juarez had meantime become president, and the in- 
ternal affairs of state occupied the politicians until in 1861 
England, France, and Spain, at the instigation of Napoleon 
III., sent out an armament and took possession of Mexico. 
The object professedly was to protect the foreigners in Mexico. 
The real reason was a desire for acquisition of territory, and on 
Napoleon's part the desire to gain fame as well as territory for 
France. The European forces were aided by the Mexican aris- 
tocracy, who saw material benefit for themselves in the re- 
sumption of a monarchical form of government, and Ferdinand 
Maximilian Joseph, brother of the emperor of Austria, was 
appointed emperor of Mexico. The archduke accepted the 



MEXICO. 253 

office on condition that England and France should agree to 
maintain a sufficient army in Mexico to keep his throne secure. 
The church party favored the change strongly, but the Liberals, 
as soon as they discovered the real object, organized an army 
and for a time held the foreigners in check. But on May 28, 
1864, the new emperor, Maximilian, arrived in Mexico and his 
protector, Marshal Bazaine, had command of a sufficient force 
to maintain order. After the close of the civil war in the 
United States, the government at Washington issued a note 
stating that the United States would oppose the maintenance 
of a monarchy on the American continent, and in January, 
1867, Bazaine and the French troops were compelled to evacu- 
ate Mexico. Attempts had been made to have Maximilian 
resign, but at the last moment he listened to the clerical party 
and returned to the city of Mexico, announcing that he would 
maintain the empire alone. The forces he could muster were 
soon besieged in Gueretaro and, on the 14th of May, the em- 
peror himself was taken prisoner. He was court-martialed 
and was shot in June, 1867. Juarez, who had laid claim to the 
presidency during the empire, returned to office. On the 29th 
of June the Mexicans under General Diaz retook the city of 
Mexico and established order. Juarez filled out his term with 
reasonable success and showed wise judgment in reorganizing 
the government again under the articles of the constitution. 
But in 1871, when the time for the regular elections arrived, 
three parties entered the field, those favoring Juarez's reelec- 
tion, those wishing to reward Diaz for his military services, 
and those looking to Lerdo de Tejada to take the office. Juarez 
was the successful candidate, but he died in 1872 and was suc- 
ceeded by Lerdo. 

In 1875 outbreaks occurred again, and Diaz was forcibly put 
into the presidency. He developed extraordinary ability in 
maintaining order. He carried on the government with a 
vigorous and liberal hand. His chief trouble was with the 
Mexican finances, which are still in a bad condition. 

The elections in 1880 were, on the whole, put through with- 
out outbreak, and Gonzalez entered upon his office in accord- 
ance with the constitution. This fact is in itself a sign of the 
establishment of organized government in Mexico, as it is one 
of the few cases of peaceful election in Mexican modern history. 



254 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

In 1884 Diaz was again elected to the presidency, in 1888 a third 
time, and in 1892 a fourth time. Mexican finances are the 
great question of the day ; the foreign debt weighs heavily on 
the country, but measures have now been taken for its regular 
diminution by the modern methods of sinking funds and simi- 
lar government undertakings. 

The Mexican constitution was drawn up on the 5th of 
°tion.^" February, 1857. It followed the dictatorship of Santa Anna 
and was prepared by a body of men elected for that purpose. 
The Constitutional Assembly used the United States constitu- 
tion as its model. 

This constitution declares the rights of man and of Mexicans. 
Property and the persons of individuals are sacred, and freedom 
of life and movement are insured by the constitution. Slavery 
is prohibited. Freedom of speech and of the press, right of 
petition, of assembly, and of bearing arms, are all declared, and 
the bearing of titles is forbidden, except such as are decreed by 
the people through their representatives. Citizenship con- 
stitutes birth of Mexican parents, whether in Mexico or in 
foreign lands. Besides this all foreigners who are naturalized 
and who acquire real estate and do not signify allegiance to an- 
other government are citizens. Their children born on Mexi- 
can territory are Mexican citizens. 

The government is for the people, by the people, and may be 
changed by the people alone. The inherent distinction be- 
tween the Mexican government and that of the United States 
is apparent in the following clause, article 40, section I., title 
II. : *' The Mexican people voluntarily constitute themselves a 
democratic, federal, representative republic, composed of states 
free and sovereign in all that concerns their internal govern- 
ment, but united in a federation established according to the 
principles of this fundamental law." It is, in other words, a 
distinct statement in the constitution, that the federal govern- 
ment is more for defense and mutual benefit merely, the active 
conduct of affairs being delegated to the governments of the 
individual states, except where that directly interferes with 
' the purpose for which the federal government is created. 

The legislative portion of the government is vested in two 

ture.^' representative houses, a Senate and a House of Deputies. The 

Senate is elected by the legislatures of the several states, two 



MEXICO. 255 

being returned by each state and two by the federal district. 
There are fifty-six members. The term of office is four years, 
but half the Senate retires every two years. A candidate must 
be a Mexican citizen of at least thirty years of age and a resi- 
dent of the state from which he is returned. 

The House of Deputies is composed of members elected by 
universal suffrage, one deputy being returned for every 40,000 
inhabitants, or fraction thereof over 20,000. There are two 
hundred and twenty-seven in all. Elections occur once in two 
years. A candidate for the House must be a citizen of the re- 
public, at least twenty-five years of age, and a resident of the 
district from which he is returned. The persons of both sena- 
tors and deputies are sacred during office, except when taken 
in the act of crime. Congress meets on the 16th of September 
and sits three months, meeting again on the 1st of April and 
closing May 30. Either House may initiate measures besides 
the presidents of the state legislatures ; and to become a law a 
bill must receive a majority in both Houses and the signature 
of the president and a cabinet nainister. The parliamentary 
rules of the United States are in force. 

The federal legislatures have power to create new states ; to 
pass laws regarding expense and finance and the budget for 
the federal government ; to make war and peace in conjunction 
with the executive ; to attend to all foreign relations ; and, in 
conjunction with the president and his cabinet, to make the 
army estimates, etc. ; to pass laws of naturalization, post and 
telegraph, and coinage ; to have charge of the public lands, to 
grant pardons, form rules f6r its own regulations, and to pass 
all laws necessary for the maintenance of the Union. Fifteen 
deputies and fourteen senators constitute a permanent commit- 
tee, which sits while the Houses are not in session. The House 
of Deputies constitutes a jury of accusation and the Senate a 
jury of judgment in the case of crimes committed by an official 
of the government from the president down. 

The executive is in the hands of the president of the United 
States of Mexico. He is elected every four years by a college Executive, 
of electors chosen by universal direct suffrage of the people at 
large. A candidate for the presidency must be a natural-born 
Mexican, at least thirty-five years of age, and in full possession 
of his citizenship rights. He cannot be a member of any 



256 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



Judiciary. 



Local gov- 
ernment. 



ecclesiastical order, and must be a resident of the country at 
the time of the election. The president is eligible for imme- 
diate reelection, but after serving a second term he is not again 
eligible until four years have intervened. In case of his death 
or incapacity he is succeeded in office by the president and 
vice-president of the Senate and the president and vice-presi- 
dent of the permanent committee in the order named. The 
president enters upon his duties on the 1st of December. 

The duties of the president are to accredit and receive foreign 
representatives, to appoint the leading officers of the state, 
cabinet, army, navy, etc. He is commander-in-chief of the 
army and navy, and he declares war and peace and grants 
letters of marque subject to the consent of the Congress. He 
may summon extra sessions of Congress and initiate bills. He 
has the right of pardon and of granting privileges, etc. Every 
bill when receiving the signature of the president must have 
that also of the cabinet minister under whose department the 
bill falls. 

There is a Supreme Court at Mexico composed of eleven 
judges and four supernumeraries with a fiscal and an attorney- 
general. The j udges are elected by indirect suffrage and serve 
six years, and candidates must be lawyers and Mexican-born 
citizens of at least thirty-five years of age. The Supreme 
Court has charge of all cases between one state and another, or 
between the Union and one or more states, and it is a court of 
final appeal from the other federal courts. These last are the 
district and circuit courts which have jurisdiction in cases be- 
tween individuals and the state or the federal government, 
besides such cases as involve foreign representatives. It 
also includes all cases which violate individual rights, which 
conflict with or concern laws of the states, or the sovereignty 
of the state, or which violate the authority of the federal 
government. 

Each state is obliged to adopt the republican form of gov- 
ernment with representatives elected by universal suffrage. 
They generally have two Houses of the same general nature as 
the federal Houses, and legislative and executive governors 
elected for a term of office as the president is elected. There 
are also state courts. But the limitations of the state 
rights are clearly defined. States may not coin money, make 



MEXICO. 257 

war or peace, conclude treaties with foreign governments, or 
grant letters of marque. They cannot, without federal con- 
sent, make tariff laws or maintain troops of war. They must 
acknowledge the laws of other states within the Union, must 
give up criminals, etc., demanded by other states, and must 
observe and carry out federal laws. Finally, they must aid 
each other when called on with troops to put down rebellion. 

The Mexican army is composed of the regular army, the Army and 
reserve, and the general reserve. The regular army consists of Navy. 
the following : 

Infantry 17,307 

Cavalry 5,484 

Artillery 1,604 

Engineers 655 

Others 2,194 

Total 27,244 

The total strength of the army with both reserves is set at 
160,963. There is a military school outside of the city of Mex- 
ico and the French system is practically adopted. 

The navy consists of two vessels of war and five gunboats. 

There is no state church, but the Roman Catholics are in a 
large majority. Other creeds are, however, tolerated. Religious 
bodies cannot acquire property. 

Education is supposed to be free and compulsory but it is 
not entirely so. The municipal and the federal governments 
contribute toward the support of the schools, of which in 
1888 there were over 10,700. 



MONTENEGRO.* 

Prince, NiCHOiiAS I. 

RULERS SINCE 1800. 

Peter 1 1782-1830 

Peter II 1830-1851 

Danilo I : 1851-1860 

Nicholas 1 1860- 

' The principality of MonteDegro is a small independent state 
of Europe, with a few miles of coast-line on the Adriatic Sea, 
lying between the provinces of Albania on the south and east, 
Herzegovina and Dalmatia on the west and north, and Novi- 
Bazar (Turkey) on the north and east. The government is that 
of a limited monarchy, and Cettinje is the capital with a popu- 
lation of 1,500. 

The area of Montenegro is 3,639 square miles and the popu- 
lation is estimated to be about 236,000, mostly of the Servian 
branch of the Slav race. 

The Montenegrins have been in perhaps as many battles as 
any other people of Europe, and they are brought up with a 
traditional hatred of Turkey and an inherent desire to go to 
war with any Turks they meet. The country was originally 
governed by bishop-princes who had the right of naming their 
successors. They held the government almost entirely within 
their own hands. 

In 1851, however, the new ruler of the principality, Danilo, 
brought about a change. He had the state declared independ- 
ent of religious rule, and from that time until the present the 
church has had little to do with the political government. At 
the same time the ruling power was made hereditary in the 
person of the secular prince. 

The history of the little principality is closely connected with 
the history of the Eastern Question, f which has given it what 
prominence it has in international affairs to-day. It has taken 

* For map see under Servia. 

t See under Austria, Russia, Turkey, and Greece. * 

258 



MONTENEGRO. 



259 



part in most of the wars of the century over the disputed ques- 
tions along the Danube, and its soldiers may always be found 
ranged on the side against Turkey. At the Congress of Ber- 
lin, in 1878, Montenegro was given a small amount of territory 
that added to its coast-line on the Adriatic. 

At the same time that he secularized the state, Danilo in 
1851-52 drew up a code of laws based on the historic rights of 
Montenegrins, which stands as the constitution of to-day, only 
changed by amendments in 1855 and in 1879. It makes the 
government a constitutional monarchy with much of the his- 
toric patriarchal form of government still remaining. 

The legislative portion of the government was taken from 
the Senate (abolished in 1879) and given to a body of eight 
men called the State Council. Four of the members are ap- 
pointed by the prince and four elected by the male inhabitants 
who are or who have been in the military service. This makes 
the government, which was in 1852 religious, now military. 

The executive portion of the government is vested in the 
prince, but he can easily control much of the legislation, and 
is in reality the legislative and executive officer with a power- 
ful control over the judiciary. 

When the Senate was abolished in 1879 the judicial powers 
it possessed were given to a Grand Tribunal. There is besides 
a Supreme Court at Cettinje, which is a court of appeal as 
well, though the final appeal in all cases is in the person of the 
prince. There are district courts in several of the larger towns. 

The religion is orthodox for the most part, and though not 
distinctly a state church, it is nevertheless practically so, since 
the prince appoints the bishops and has control in the govern- 
ment of the church as well as in the government of the state. 
There are, however, Roman Catholics and Mohammedans in 
Montenegro. Education is compulsory and free in primary 
schools and there are a few secondary schools supported by 
Russian money. 

There is no regular army, but the entire population is brought 
up on a military education. All the male able-bodied inhabi- 
tants are liable to service between the ages of seventeen and 
sixty, and they are all anxious to serve. These are estimated 
at about 29,000 men. There is no navy, Montenegro being 
denied one by an article of the Berlin treaty. 



Constitu- 
tion. 



Legisla- 
ture. 



Executive. 



Judiciary. 



Army. 



MOROCCO. 

Sultan, - - - - Mule Y-H ASS AN. 

RULERS SINCE 1800. 

Sultan Muley-Soliman 1794-1822 

Sultan Muley-Abderrahman 1822-1859 

Sultan Sidi-Muley-Mohammed 1859-1873 

Sultan Muley-Hassan 1873- 

The sultanate of Morocco is in the northwestern corner of 
Africa, bounded on the north by the Straits of Gibraltar and 
the Mediterranean Sea, on the east by Algeria, on the south 
by the Desert of Sahara, and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean. 
The government is an absolute despotism directly under the 
sultan. Morocco and Fez are the capitals, and the sultan spends 
half the year in each city. The area of Morocco is estimated 
without much probable correctness at 219,000 square miles. As 
no one lives or goes into the southern districts near the Sahara 
it is impossible to be even approximately accurate. The 
divisions of Morocco are as follows : Fez, Morocco, Tafilet, 
Segelmesa, Sus, Adrar, Northern Droa, in all containing 
about 9,400,000 inhabitants. 

Morocco has been for many years coveted by Spain, England, 
and France. The Spaniards claim the prior right and want the 
Historical territory as a valuable situation on the Mediterranean. France 
wishes to extend her possessions from Algeria into Morocco, 
and England will not allow any country to gain extensive 
possession of land in Africa, especially near Gibraltar, without 
claiming her share. The other countries of Europe defend 
England, awaiting results. It is to this discussion of the great 
powers that the present independence of Morocco is due ; for 
the government has no place in the nineteenth century and 
the administration is atrocious. 

Soliman, who began to reign in 1794, was the most enlight- 
ened of Morocco's rulers. He did away with slavery and the 
slave trade in his state, and he suppressed piracy in the Medi- 
terranean so far as his kingdom was concerned. This last did 
much to open the Mediterranean to general commerce with the 

260 



MOROCCO. 261 

world. Soon after his fall the Spanish got into trouble with 
Morocco over abuses heaped upon Spanish residents in the lat- 
ter state, and later, at the time of the French war in Algeria, 
the sultan sent troops under Abd-el-Kader, which were de- 
feated by the French. Thereupon the Prince de Joinville, at 
the head of the French forces in Algeria, entered the sultan's 
country, and stormed and took Algiers. The year 1845 saw the 
close of the war and a formation of a treaty, by which Morocco 
was deprived of some of her territory and was obliged to make 
other concessions to the French. In 1853 Europeans gained 
their first knowledge of the interior of the country. Customs- 
duties and treaties were arranged in the years following, and 
in 1860, after a war with Spain which resulted in the defeat 
of Morocco and the payment of a large indemnity to the Span- 
ish government, Morocco was compelled to give up the territory 
of Santa Cruz de Mar and Pequena and to give to the Spanish 
government the right to supervise her custom-house business. 

Gradually, from this time, the possibility of trade with Mo- 
rocco became greater as the security of life and property in- 
creased. In 1864 Europeans were admitted to carry on busi- 
ness within the sultan's country, and after the accession of 
Hassan, in 1878, endeavors were made to have commercial re- 
lations put upon a firmer basis. A convention at Madrid in 
1880, where the matter was discussed, settled nothing of 
great importance, however, and since then no material progress 
has been made. The government is too uncertain and the 
sultan's agreements too unreliable. 

The government being an absolute despotism, there is no 
constitution. The sultan's will is law in civil, criminal, legis- ^en?' 
lative, judicial, and religious matters. The sultan carries on 
the government, legislative and executive, himself with the 
assistamce of a vizier, minister of foreign and home aflairs, a 
chief chamberlain, a treasurer, and an administrator of cus- 
toms. He appoints all these and all other officials throughout 
the kingdom and has complete control of the government. 

The army is composed of about 10,000 men, who follow the Army, 
sultan as a body guard, and an extra force of 40,000 reserves 
that can be called upon in time of w^ar. 

The religion is a branch of the Mohammedan faith, but the 
sultan is the absolute head of the church. 



THE NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND). 



Queen, - Wilhelmina Helena Pauline. 

RULERS SINCE 1800. 

Republic of the Netherlands 1815 

William I 1815-1840 

William 11 1840-1849 

William III 1849-1890 

Wilhelmina 1890- 

MINISTRY. 

Minister of Foreign Affairs and President of the Council 

Dr. G. Van Tienhoven 

Minister of the Interior Dr. J. P. Tak van Poortvliet 

Minister of Finance Dr. N. G. Pierson 

Minister of Justice Dr. H. J. Smidt 

Minister of the Colonies Dr. W. K. van Dedem 

Minister of Marine J. C. Jansen 

Minister of War Colonel A. L. G. Seyffardt 

Minister of Industry and Commerce C. Lely 



TABLE OF STATISTICS. 




Provinces. 


Area. 


Population. 


North Brabant 


1,980 
1,965 
1,166 
1,070 

690 

534 
1,282 
1,291 

790 
1,030 

850 


574,075 
515,938 
966,999 
844 488 


Guelders 


South Holland 


North Holland 


Zealand 


200 792 


Utrecht 


224,001 
335,824 
297,453 


Friesland 


Overyssel 


Groningen 


275,356 


Drenthe 


132,495 


Limburg 


257,144 




Total 


12,648 


4,624,765 



262 



THE NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND). 



The kingdom of the Netherlands occupies the northern 
central part of Europe, or what is called the Low Countries. 
It is bounded on the north by the North Sea, which runs 
along its coast from the Rhine to Westphalia. It is bounded 
on the east and south by the German Empire, and on the south 
and west by Belgium and the North Sea. The government 
is that of a limited, 
constitutional mon- 
archy. Amsterdam 
is the capital with a 
population of 417,539. 

The country now 
occupied by the 
Netherlands has had 
an eventful history. 
Holland in past cen- 
turies ruled the world 
with her commerce, 
but the early part 
of the nineteenth 
century saw her ri- 
val, England, gradu- 
ally usurp that power 
and deprive her of her wealth and fame. By 1800 Holland was, 
therefore, but a wreck of her former greatness. The Low Coun- 
tries had begun to divide, as they must have sooner or later, 
during the French Revolution. The country contained people 
who believed in different forms of government, different re- 
ligions, and different methods of life. In 1801 the Batavian 
Republic had fallen and States-General and national conven- 
tions had followed each other almost as rapidly as the changes 
in France during the last decade of the century. At this time 

263 




History 
since z8oo. 



264 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

the Netherlands included the territory now occupied by Bel- 
gium. Napoleon in 1805 made his brother, Louis Bonaparte, 
king of the people and forced a constitution on Holland, which 
lasted until 1819. And in spite of the unfitness of both mon- 
arch and people to live under such a government, the state 
found in its king a man who endeavored to advance its 
interests, and, on the whole, the people prospered. 

The emperor in 1810 divided the Low Countries and annexed 
Holland to France, but his capture and exile in 1813 was the 
signal for revolt in Holland. A monarchy was at once estab- 
lished in Amsterdam, where the Prince of Orange appeared 
shortly afterwards and was crowned William I., King of the 
Netherlands, by an assembly of Notables in 1814. 

After the battle of Waterloo came the reapportionment of 
Europe at the Congress of Vienna. Belgium had been an- 
nexed to Holland in 1814 at the peace of Paris, and William I. 
declared king of both countries. At Vienna much of the ter- 
ritory formerly belonging to the Netherlands was acquired by 
Austria and by the German states, and for this sacrifice William 
I. received the duchy of Luxemburg, excepting the town and 
fortress. The right of the House of Orange to rule over the 
country was guaranteed, and a monarchy was sanctioned by 
the European powers. The latter encouraged the setting up 
of this kingdom in order to establish a power in the north 
hostile to France. 

The king became the executive head of the government and 
was given also extensive legislative powers. There were two 
houses of legislature. The government succeeded for a time, and 
might have continued under this semi-constitutional organiza- 
tion, had it not become evident that Belgium and Holland 
could never exist under the same system. The Belgians are 
and were at the time of the revolution in sympathy with the 
French. They differ from the Dutch in habits, in life, in re- 
ligion, and they belong to another class of humanity, as dif- 
ferent from the Dutch as the French are from the English. 
Furthermore, the king of the Netherlands lived in Holland, 
seldom or never visited Belgium, and surrounded himself with 
Dutch rather than Belgian ministers. 

Toward the close of the second decade of the century the 
Belgians had a strong majority in the national assembly, the 



THE NETHERLANDS. 265 

States-General, but they could carry no measure through. All 
hut one of the ministers were Dutch, and measures passed by 
the Belgian majority in the House were constantly vetoed by 
the executive. 

The result was a revolution in 1830, stimulated no doubt by 
the French Revolution of July, and Belgium then succeeded 
in obtaining its own government.* King William would not 
agree to certain of the stipulations of the powers who had in- 
terfered to bring about peace, and he invaded Belgium in the 
endeavor to reconquer the country. He was, however, de- 
feated by a French force sent to assist the Belgians, and was 
obliged to retire, holding only the fortified city of Antwerp. 
Thereupon the French sent another force into Belgian territory, 
Antwerp was taken, and the European powers called another 
meeting in London in 1833. Here France and England finally 
brought about a settlement by which an armistice was agreed 
upon until a treaty could be signed. In 1839 peace was at last 
made and treaty arrangements agreed to. The Scheldt River 
'was made the boundary line and was thrown open to navi- 
gation under a system of tolls. Holland secured Limburg and 
a part of Luxemburg, and the two kingdoms were from this 
time separate sovereign powers. 

William I. reigned under the semi-constitutional govern- 
ment until 1840, when he resigned in favor of his son William 
II. The Dutch people as a whole are quiet and law-abiding, 
and though the Netherlands had now nothing of the power 
and prominence of former times, yet the country remained 
at peace and began to show some material growth. In 1848, 
when Europe w^as overrun with revolutions, the people of the 
Netherlands paid but little attention to the changes going on 
about them. The old constitution of 1814, granted at the time 
of William I.'s accession, was somewhat modernized, but 
otherwise there was no sign of revolt among the people. 
William II. died in 1849 and was in turn succeeded by his son 
William III. 

The struggle with the Catholics which has disturbed Bel- 
gium for so many years did not extend into the Netherlands. 
The excitement was intense for a time in 1853 when the papacy 
introduced Catholic bishops into Holland and sought to give 

* See Belgium. 



Constitu- 



266 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

them temporal powers, but the country has always remained 
Protestant, and Catholicism has not grown to dangerous pro- 
portions. The ministry is, as a rule, made up almost entirely 
of Protestants and the Liberals have maintained control of the 
government for many years. 

The present constitution of Holland dates from the Grond- 
wet granted by Prince William Frederick of Orange-Hassan 
"tiVn." in 1814. It was amended in the following year when Holland 
and Belgium were united, and has since been altered in 1830, 
1848, and 1887. The constitution provides for the security of 
life and property within the kingdom, secures the right of 
individuals, the right of assembly, the right of petition to 
organized bodies on subjects coming within their province, etc. 

The legislative portion of the government is detailed to the 
tSe.^" States-General, or Parliament, which is composed of a First 
and Second Chamber. It has control, conjointly with the 
king, of all legislative affairs in the kingdom. 

The First Chamber is now composed of fifty members, who 
are elected by the states of the kingdom. Candidates are chosen 
from the citizens of the state paying the highest taxes, or from 
persons who have held some state office before. From this class 
in each province, state delegates are elected to serve nine years, 
at the expiration of which time hew elections are held. 

The Second, or Lower Chamber is composed of one hundred 
members chosen by a limited universal suffrage of the Dutch 
citizens of the provincial states. Of the 100 members, 9 are re- 
turned by the city of Amsterdam, 3 by The Hague, 2 by Utrecht, 
5 by Rotterdam, and 2 by Groningen. The remaining 79 are 
elected, one by each of the other 79 constituejicies. The suf- 
frage law requires that a candidate must be thirty years of 
age and in the full possession of all civil rights. Voters must 
be twenty- three years of age and either paying a ground rent 
of ten guilders, or a certain personal tax which varies in dif- 
ferent constitutions. The term of office is four years and the 
entire Chamber retires at the same time. Either or both of 
the Chambers may be dissolved by the king, but he must call 
a new election within forty days of the dissolution. Members 
of the ministry have the right to take seats in both Houses. 
The Lower House can alone initiate measures, and all proposals 
from the king are submitted there first. The States-General 



THE NETHERLANDS. 



267 



Executive. 



meets once a year on the third Monday in September. Sit- 
tings are usually public, but a vote of one tenth of the mem- 
bers may close the doors. One half of the total membership 
constitutes a quorum in either House, and on a tie vote the 
question is adjourned for the session. 

The king, always a member of the House of Orange, is the 
supreme executive, but he has a share in the legislative func- 
tions of the government as well. He attains his majority at 
the age of eighteen. Women may succeed to the throne, and 
in default of either the male or female line the sovereign may 
name his successor with the advice and consent of the States- 
General. The king has the supreme charge of the state finances. 
He fixes salaries of state officials, excepting those of judges, 
which are determined by law. He confers titles, has the right 
of pardon, signs all acts passed by the States-General and can 
initiate measures there, but all acts or orders issued by him 
must be countersigned by a head of one of the departments. 

The Hooge Baad^ or High Court of Appeals, is the court of 
last instance. There are besides thirty-five courts of justice in Judiciary, 
the kingdom, to which cases are brought from twenty-three 
district tribunals, and the courts of first instance are cantonal 
courts numbering 106. There is no trial by jury. 

Religious liberty is permitted in the kingdom, but the Pres- 
byterians and Roman Catholics comprise a large portion of 
the inhabitants. 

The Dutch army is governed by a system of its own, by 
which men over nineteen are liable to a five years' active 
service, this being in reality one year's active service and six 
weeks in each year for the following four years. There is also 
a very large militia, active and reserve, which comprises two 
per cent of the entire population, a Landsturm, or further re- 
serve, and a society of sharpshooters — all liable to be called 
upon in time of war. The regular army numbers a peace foot- 
ing of 23,000 men, and a war footing of over 70,000. 

The navy in 1891 consisted of 

Warships 12 

Monitors 12 

Gunboats : 47 

Torpedo boats 38 

Training ships 16 

Others 20 

Total 145 



Army and 
Navy. 



events. 



268 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

The questions that have been of most importance in 
Recent Holland during recent years are, the suffrage laws, the 
question arising from Dutch colonists in India, and the Cath- 
olic and Protestant contests over the schools. The suffrage 
law was finally extended in 1887 to give 200,000 more voters 
the right to cast ballots. This was the result of strenuous 
labor among the Liberals, who in general favor a reduction, 
of taxation, especially a reduction in the army and navy 
estimates, who oppose religious instruction in the schools, 
and who favor more rights in legislative matters for the 
Lower Chamber. 

With the reinstatement of bishops in 1853 considerable ex- 
citement was created, and from then until after 1871 the 
ministry changed often, it being considered necessary to dis- 
solve the Lower Chamber several times. Thorbecke, the 
leader of the Liberals, and Heemskerk, leader of a combina- 
tion of Ultramontanes and anti-revolutionists, changed places 
at the head of the government frequently, until in 1872 Thor- 
becke died, the Conservatives gained a majority, and Heems- 
kerk returned for the third time to the premiership. 

In 1876 Holland undertook to end the intermittejit war with 
Atcheen, the kingdom which joins Sumatra in India, which 
cost the government enormous sums of money and many men, 
without bringing them much in return. This war had been 
going on for years, caused originally by the fear the Dutch 
government felt that England would gain possession and 
trouble her in her East Indian colonies, but the inhabitants of 
Atcheen seem to be unconquerable and nothing has ever been 
really gained by this expensive war. 

In 1884 the crown prince of Holland died, and when, there- 
fore, in 1890, King William III. died his little ten-year-old 
daughter, Wilhelmina, was the only successor, the direct 
male line of the House of Orange being broken for the first 
time. A regency was appointed with the young queen's 
mother at its head, to educate Wilhelmina and carry on the 
government until she became of age. 

While there have been occasional Conservative or Ultra- 
montane ministries within recent years, the Liberals have in 
the main held the power. In 1891 Tienhoven, burgomaster 
of Amsterdam, became head of the Liberal ministry, and 



THE NETHERLANDS. 



269 



with the help of Poortvliet he has succeeded in holding the 
control up to the present. 

The colonial possessions of the Netherlands are represented 
in the following table, together with their areas and popula- 
tions : 



Name of possession. 

Java and Madura 

Sumatra 

Kiouw— Lingga Archipelago. 

Banca 

Billiton 

Borneo 

Island of Celebes 

Molucca Islands 

Timor Archipelago 

Bali and Lonibok 

New Guinea , 

Total 



Area. 



50,848 

149,555 

17,325 

4,977 

2,500 

208.714 

7i;i50 

42,420 

21,840 

3,990 

150,755 



719,074 



Population. 



23,862,820 

3,18(},100 

94,676 

79,648 

87,803 

1,108,892 

762,284 

321,168 

45,588 

1,358,064 

200,000 



31,051,993 



NICARAGUA.* 



President, 



General Santos Zelaya. 



Area and 
population. 



Historical 
sketch. 



Nicaragua runs entirely across the central part of Central 
America from the Caribbean Sea to the Pacific Ocean, with 
Honduras on the north and Costa Rica on the south. The 
capital is Managua, 18,000 inhabitants. 

The country is divided into nine departments : Segovia, 
Chinendega, Leon, Matagalpa, Granada, Rivas, Chantelos, 
Managua, and Masaya, covering a total area of 49,500 square 
miles, and having a population, largely of blacks and mulat- 
toes, of about 400,000. 

Nicaragua was part of the Central American Spanish colonies 
until 1821, when it arose in revolt with the other provinces. 
In 1823 it joined the Federal Union, from which it finally se- 
ceded in 1833, after nearly eleven years of almost uninterrupted 
bloodshed and war. Independence did not put an end to the 
upheavals. The state had long had diflQculties with Costa 
Rica as to boundary lines and the possession of the prov- 
ince of Guanacasta, and these were not finally settled until 
President Harrison of the United States was chosen arbiter in 
1888. The question of the Mosquito Coast was also a bone of 
contention for many years. The protectorate of England over 
that stretch of coast on the Caribbean Sea, and for forty miles 
inland between 10° SO^ and 13° north latitude dated back many 
years. Nicaragua denied such a right on the part of England, 
and the matter was in dispute until 1850, when under the terms 
of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty, England resigned all her claims 
to the territory. By the Managua treaty of ten years later the 
control was given to Nicaragua. The local chief still remains 
ruler in the Mosquito Coast country, though the government 
of Nicaragua has power to depose him. There is a small execu- 
tive council, under the chief, situated at Bluefields. 



* For map see under Honduras. 



270 



NICARAGUA. 



271 



Another cause for internal war has been the contest of the 
Liberal faction in the city of Leon and the Conservative in 
Granada. In 1855, after a number of years of constantly 
changing presidential terms, the then president, Castillon, ap- 
plied to General Walker in San Francisco for aid against the 
Conservatives. Walker landed in Realejo on the 13th of June 
with sixty-two chosen companions, and on the 14th of Oc- 
tober, at the head of the Liberal troops, he captured the city 
of Granada, made Rivas nominal and himself actual ruler of 
the country, and declared for the union of the Central Ameri- 
can republics under the leadership of Nicaragua. 

The other states sprang into arms at once and proceeded 
into Nicaraguan territory in 1856 where Walker was attacked 
and besieged. He surrendered on being allowed by the com- 
mander of the allied forces, General Mora, to depart in safety. 
Martinez was elected president in June, 1859, and peace was 
again restored. Walker returned in 1860, but was shot on the 
15th of September, soon after entering the country. 

Nicaragua since 1860 has been most of the time in a state of 
war, interrupted with changes of presidents and an innumer- 
able number of pronunciamentos. 

The constitution of the country was put into eiffect on 
August 19, 1858, but in practice it is not followed closely. 

The legislative portion of the government consists of a Sen- 
ate and a House of Representatives. The former is composed 
of eighteen members, who are elected for a term of six years 
by universal suffrage. The House is composed of 21 members 
elected for four years. Congress assembles once in two years. 

The president is elected by universal suffrage for a term of 
four years. He is assisted in the administration of the govern- 
ment by a cabinet of seven members, appointed by himself, 
including the minister of foreign affairs, justice, interior, 
finance, public works, public instruction, and war. 

There is a Supreme Court sitting at Granada and Leon. 
Under these two divisions of the highest court there are in- 
ferior criminal and civil courts in the different departments. 

The military force consists of about 700 men in time of 
peace. There is also a militia of about 25,000 men. 

There is no state religion, though the inhabitants are largely 
Catholic. Education has been stimulated in recent years by 



Constitn- 
tion. 



Legisla- 
ture. 



Executive. 



Judiciary. 



Army and 
Wavy. 



272 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

the importation of trained teachers from tlie United States 
and Europe. There are 250 schools, several schools of a 
technical nature, and a college. 

Cardenas was elected to the presidency in 1883, and since 
events. then the two important matters have been the Central Ameri- 
can war * and the proposed Nicaraguan Canal to run from the 
Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. The latter increased in import- 
ance as the impossibility of making a canal at Panama became 
more and more evident. There have been plans for a canal 
across Nicaragua for the greater part of the century, but prac- 
tically nothing had been done until the Maritime Canal Com- 
pany of Nicaragua was founded. This company a few years 
later secured a grant from the Nicaraguan government giving 
it the sole right for ninety-nine years to build a canal. The 
route, beginning at Brito on the Pacific Coast, runs seventeen 
miles through a somewhat difficult rock-bed, involving some 
cutting, where three locks will be necessary ; thence to Lake 
. Nicaragua ; thence at a level of 110 feet above the sea, 56.5 
miles to St. Carlos, thence across the lake to the beginning of 
the San Juan River; thence 64.5 miles to Ochoa, where a dam 
is to be constructed to keep the river up to the lake level ; 
thence following the San Juan River, to the Caribbean Sea at 
Greytown, a distance of 31.8 miles, where three more locks will 
be necessary to bring the canal to the sea level. 

The canal is estimated to cost $64,000,000, and, calculating 
the tonnage to be 5,000,000 tons in 1895, which is a legitimate 
estimate, according to the present activity in shipping, a tol- 
lage of $2.50 per ton will pay running expenses and six per 
cent on a capital of $200,000,000. Ground was broken for the 
canal early in 1891. The canal is to be absolutely neutral in 
time of war. 



* See Guatemala. 



Historical 



ORANGE RIVER FREE STATE.* 

President, Judge Reitz. 

The Orange River Free State is a republic situated in the 
southern part of Africa, and is bounded on the north by Trans- 
vaal, on the east by Transvaal, Natal, and a part of Cape Col- 
ony, on the south by Cape Colony, and on the west by the 
western part of Griqualand and a portion of Bechuanaland. 
The republic has no coast-line therefore. The government is 
republican, and the capital is Bloemfontein with a population 
of 3,459, including whites and blacks. 

The area of the country is about 41,500 square miles and the 
population is made up of 77,716 whites and 129,787 natives, or 
in all 207,503 inhabitants. 

At the beginning of the century that part of Africa now 
occupied by the Free State was overrun with native tribes who "sketch' 
lived as they still live farther north and west in the uncivilized 
center of Africa. Toward 1824 some of the pioneer farmers of 
Cape Colony moved northward in order to get beyond the con- 
trol of the Cape government and have more room for their 
cattle. Ten years later a large number of white settlers had 
populated this district, and they were later followed by Dutch 
emigrants from Cape Colony, who also moved northward to be 
out of English rule. 

These men formed a government among themselves, and in 
their common endeavor to protect their interests they fought 
the natives and drove them northward and westward. These 
in turn applied to the English government for assistance. 
British forces were sent to their assistance. The country was 
for a time pacified, and an English resident was left there to 
keep the peace. But in 1848 the condition of affairs had be- 
come so bad that the Cape Colony decided to take control of the 
country and put it under an organized government. The dis- 



* For map see under South African Republic. 

273 



274 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



Constitu- 
tion. 



Legisla- 
ture. 



trict was consequently "annexed" to British territory and 
given the name of "The Orange River British Sovereignty." 

The Dutch Boers objected to this English rule and fought 
with the natives against the English forces, until they were 
temporarily compelled to stop on account of the loss of men 
and want of arms. The partial quiet that then ensued induced 
many whites to enter the country and settle there. Hostilities 
were, however, renewed and the English government deeming 
it impossible to pacify the wild tribes or the settlers finally 
withdrew its control in 1853. In the following year the Orange 
River Free State was formed and the present government in- 
stituted. A constitution was drawn up which provided for an 
assembly elected by the inhabitants and the new government 
took immediate control of the territory. It has been moderately 
successful, and the country prospers in its way. The occupa- 
tions are mostly agricultural with some mining industries. 

The constitution of the Free State drawn up in 1854 has re- 
mained practically unchanged. It is founded on republican 
principles which are carried out so far as is possible and neces- 
sary among such inhabitants. 

The legislative power is vested in a Volkraad, or National 
Council, of fifty-six members. This body makes laws and has 
control of the administration of them. It also controls the 
finances of the country. All laws are, according to the constitu- 
tion, in force two months after being voted in the Council and 
signed by the presidents of the Volkraad and of the republic. 
It is in the power of the Volkraad to impeach the president, 
the final vote requiring three quarters of the total membership. 
The Volkraad cannot curtail the right of assembly. All civil 
and military laws, laws concerning taxation, customs, etc., 
and the regular prerogatives of a constituent assembly, come 
within the province of the Volkraad. Candidates for election 
must be twenty-five years of age and own $2,500 worth of 
property. Members serve four years, and half the total num- 
ber retire every two years. They are elected by a manhood 
suffrage requiring a voter to be a native of the state, or a 
resident of three years possessing either $650 in capital, a farm 
worth $150, an income of $1,000, or property worth $15,000. The 
Volkraad meets on the first of May in each year. 

The president of the Free State is the executive officer. His 



ORANGE RIVER FREE STATE. 



275 



term is five years, but he may be indefinitely reelected. His 
duties are to superintend ttie administration, command the 
army, accredit and receive foreign deputations, and visit all 
parts of the country and hear complaints. He may with 
the consent of the Volkraad declare war, make peace, sign 
treaties, and call conventions. There is an executive council to 
assist him, composed of the Landrost^ or governor of the cap- 
ital, the government secretary, and three members appointed 
by the Volkraad each to serve one year. It reports six times a 
year to the Volkraad and may convene that body or declare 
martial law under the president's advice and consent. 

The law is founded on the Roman Dutch jurisprudence. 
There are three judges of a Supreme Court which is a court 
of appeals under the name of a high court of justice. One of 
the judges sits twice a year in each town in circuit court. 
There are inferior courts for minor offenses, both civil and 
criminal, in different districts. Trial by jury is guaranteed by 
the constitution. 

There are nineteen departments or districts, each presided 
over by a Landrost, who is appointed by the president with 
the consent of the Volkraad. Field cornets and field com- 
mandants are also elected in each district. 

The Dutch Reform Church is the state church though other 
creeds are tolerated. The educational system is very poor, 
more than half the white population being unable to read or 
write. Yet there is some pretense at state supervision of 
schools, and more than |100,000 was appropriated in 1891 for 
educational purposes. 

There are no fortifications. The army consists of 17,381 
available soldiers who constitute the able-bodied men between 
the ages of sixteen and sixty. 



Executive. 



Judiciary. 



Army. 



PARAGUAY. 

President, - - Juan G. Gonzalez. 

Paraguay lies in the southeastern part of South America. 
It is bounded on the north by Bolivia and Brazil, on the east 
by Brazil, on the south by the Argentine "Republic, and on the 
west by the Argentine Republic. The capital is Asuncion, 
24,838 inhabitants. Paraguay has no coast-line whatsoever. 

The area of the republic is 91,970 square miles and the popu- 
lation is about 400,000. Of these the greater part are women 
and children, constant war until very recent years having 
practically annihilated the male population. The fourteen 
departments are: Asuncion, San Pedro, Concepcion, Rica, 
Caazapa, Lugal, Carapagua, San Estanislao, Itangua, Ita, 
Paraguari, Humaita, Pilas, Jaguaron. 

In 1811 the territory now occupied by Paraguay declared its 
sketch. independence of Spain and was formed into an independent 
state by Dr. J. G. Rodriguez Francia. He was made secretary 
of a national junta in 1811. In 1813 a constitution was 
adopted, under the clauses of which the ruling power was 
given into the hands of a duumvirate. Francia became one 
of the two rulers, and a year later was appointed dictator, 
first for three years and later for life. Until his death in 1840 
he ruled the country with a strong hand, closing the state to 
foreign commerce, but, on the other hand, encouraging 
national industry and the development of internal affairs. 

At his death his nephew, Carlos Antonio Lopez, succeeded 
him and ruled the country in what was for the times a peace- 
ful reign until 1862. The government was on the whole re- 
publican, though Lopez was practical dictator with a ministry 
responsible only to himself. He was reelected president in 
1857 for a term of seven years and died in 1862. 

According to the custom in South American republics, Lopez 
named his successor in the person of his son, Francisco Solano 

276 



PARAGUAY. 277 

Lopez. This man has done more to ruin Paraguay than can 
be easily understood at first sight. He involved the state in a 
series of wars that have almost literally exterminated the 
male population and that completely ruined the finances. 
He had an ambition to conquer the states along the river La 
Plata. He began in 1864 by protesting against the interfer- 
ence of Brazil in the civil war then raging in Uruguay against 
the president, Flores, on the ground that he was maintaining 
the "balance of power" among the La Plata states. In the 
same year he brought on war with Brazil by seizing Brazilian 
ships of war on the La Plata at Asuncion. The Brazilian 
government, still paying no attention to his interference in the 
Uruguay affair, he invaded the Brazilian province of Matto- 
Grosso. This led Brazil to form an offensive and defensive al- 
liance with Uruguay and the Argentine Republic against him 
in 1865. The result was a fierce war of five years' duration. 

It only closed after the repeated defeats of the Paraguayan 
troops and the annihilation of the army. Gradually through 
1866 and 1867 Lopez's army grew thinner and thinner, and 
finally after the fall of Asuncion he was driven with the rem- 
nant of his followers into the mountains and there killed 
while in retreat. 

After peace had been signed with Brazil, in which part of 
the territory of Paraguay on the north was absorbed by Brazil, 
treaties were made with the latter and the Argentine Republic 
which forced Paraguay to pay war indemnities to the amount 
of £47,200,000. The men who were left in the country elected 
representatives to formulate a constitution which was finally 
adopted on the 27th of June, 1876 . In 1874 Vantista Gill became 
president, but was shot in 1877, a plot being discovered having 
for its object the overthrow of the government. For a while 
there was an interim when the president of the Senate ruled 
the state, and the government was not settled again until 
Caballero was elected in 1882. He was succeeded in 1890 by 
Don Gonzalez. The country was too completely devastated in 
1870 to recover in twenty-five years, and it only now begins to 
show signs of growing commercial activity. 

A new constitution was adopted November 25, 1870, which con- 
was founded on that of 1844, but Paraguay is largely under the stitution. 
influence of Brazil. 



278 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



Legisla- 
ture. 



Executive. 



Judiciary. 



Army and 
Navy. 



The legislature consists of two houses, a Senate and a House 
of Representa Gives. Of these the Senate is composed of mem- 
bers, one for every 12,000 inhabitants, chosen for a term of six 
years, one third of the Chamber going out every two years. 
The members of the House of Representatives are also elected 
by universal suffrage for a term of four years in the ratio of 
one for every 6,000 inhabitants. 

The president of the republic is elected by an electoral col- 
lege to serve a term of four years, and is not eligible for re- 
election until two terms have intervened. He is assisted in 
the administration by a cabinet of five ministers. 

There is a Supreme Court at Asuncion composed of three 
judges, representing the heads of the civil, criminal, and com- 
mercial codes. The departments are divided into twenty-three 
electoral districts and there is a municipal government in 
each district. Much of the law code is prepared especially for 
Paraguay, but the civil code of the Argentine Republic is in 
force. 

The military force is a small body of 623 men partly infantry 
and partly cavalry. There is one steamship and two smaller 
crafts. 

Roman Catholicism is the established church under the con- 
stitution, but other creeds are tolerated. Education is repre- 
sented by 160 schools, in which, since November, 1881, educa- 
tion has been compulsory. There is a bureau of education, 
and within recent years a board has been appointed to increase 
popular education and learning, but the whole system is in- 
complete and insufficient. 



PERSIA. 



Shah, 



Nasr-ed-Din. 



The monarchy of Persia is in the southwestern part of Asia. 
It is bounded on the north by Russia, the Caspian Sea, and 
part of Siberia, on the east by Turkestan, Beluchistan, and 
Afghanistan, on the south by the Persian Gulf, and on the west 
by the gulf and Turkey in Asia. The government is that of 
an absolute monarchy vested solely in the shah. Teheran is 
the capital with a population of 210,000. 

Persia covers an area of 628,000 square miles. The population 
is estimated for 1891 
at about 9,000,000, of 
which some 800 are 
European whites. 
The greater part of 
the country is bar- 
ren and but sparsely 
settled, but the 
cities are thickly 
populated, and the 
rest of the popu- 
lation lives in towns 
and the rural dis- 
tricts that immedi- 
ately adjoin them. 

The chief inter- 
est in Persian his- 
tory of this century 
is to be found in its 
connection with 
Russian and English diplomacy in Asia. It is the object of 
these two great European powers to gain control of Afghan- 
istan and Beluchistan. Russia hopes to spread her control 

279 




Historical 
sketch. 



^ 



280 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

southward from Siberia to the sea coast on the Indian Ocean, 
and England with her colonial interests at stake looks upon 
these two countries as part of her Indian possessions. Persia, 
lying between these two powers, is practically ruled by the 
English and Russian diplomatic representatives at Teheran. 

In 1797 Fath Ali became shah by appointment and suc- 
cession. Scarcely three years had passed before he became in- 
volved in a war with Russia in the vicinity of Erivan on the 
Caspian Sea, which resulted in his defeat and the loss of ter- 
ritory. In 1809 England, through the India office, first opened 
diplomatic relations with the shah and established a legation 
at Teheran. The minister brought about peace with Russia 
in 1813 at Gulistan, when Persia ceded Georgia and seven other 
provinces along the Caspian to Russia. 

England in her treaty arrangements had formed an alliance 
with the shah which required Persia in the event of an inva- 
sion of India by the Afghans to side with England, while at 
the same time England, should the Russians attack the Per- 
sian border, agreed to come to the shah's assistance. In 1821 
a war with Turkey opened over the questions of boundary, 
and it was only checked by the spread of Asiatic cholera 
among the troops. The war broke out again in 1826 between 
Russia and Persia and the shah was obliged to give up more 
territory in the north, including the important city of Erivan. 

Fath Ali died in 1834 and was succeeded by his grandson 
Mohammed. Riots occurred at Teheran before the new shah 
was crowned, but the English and Russian representatives 
succeeded in quelling the disturbance and Mohammed was 
crowned in 1835. 

From this time the history of Persia has been a series of dip- 
lomatic intrigues between the Russian and English represent- 
atives. In 1836 the shah was persuaded by the Russian, Count 
Simonich, to invade Afghanistan, and he captured the capital 
after a siege of over a year. The English, however, saved the 
city by sending a force northward under Colonel Stoddart. 
This resulted in strained relations with England. Persia re- 
fused to give up the towns captured from the Afghans and Mr. 
John McNeill, the English representative, left Teheran, and 
British forces occupied the island of Karak in the northern 
part of the Persian Gulf. The shah seeing his weak position 



PERSIA. 281 

received Mr. McNeill again in 1841, and amicable relations 
were restored. 

Persia was now disturbed internally by the rise of a self- 
styled prophet, Said Mohammed Ali, who put himself at the. 
head of a religious sect, the Babbis. This body of fanatics 
had been in existence for half a century, and a war of exter- 
mination was now begun against them, which occupied the 
attention of the Persian government from 1852 to 1860 and 
finally resulted in the annihilation of the whole sect. 

Meantime, in 1848, Mohammed had died and been suc- 
<}eeded by his son, Nasr-ed-Din. The latter's reign has 
been a remarkable one. It is significant enough in that one 
man has been able to retain his power over such a people for 
so many years. His first work was the final extinction of the 
Babbis, which was accomplished by the most frightful atroci- 
ties and persecutions. The Crimean War in 1854-56 weakened 
the relations between Persia and England again, owing to the 
fact that the British government sided with Turkey, Persia's 
hereditary enemy, and war was the result in 1856, Persia hav- 
ing captured the city of Herat, the capital of Afghanistan. 
The peace of Paris, however, ended the Crimean War, and on 
the evacuation of Herat by the Persians peace was again re- 
stored between them and the English government. 

There is, strictly speaking, no constitution in Persia except constitu- 
the Koran, which, as in Turkey, is the only standard by which tion. 
the ruler can be judged and held in check. The shah has 
supreme and absolute power over the life and property of his 
subjects, and the revenues of the country constitute his in- 
come. His fortune is said to exceed 130,000,000, mostly in 
diamonds and precious stones. There is no legislation, all 
laws being promulgated by decrees of the shah. He has to 
assist him in the details of the government a ministry intro- 
duced some years ago on the plan of European governments. 
It consists of nineteen members, eight without portfolios, 
besides ministers for foreign affairs, finance, war, treasury, 
justice, custom-house, interior, arsenals, and arts and the 
press. There is also a minister for mines, telegraphs, and pub- 
lic instruction and one for post and religious endowments. 
These members of a kind of cabinet are appointed by the shah, 
and are therefore subject to dismissal by him. They are, 



282 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

therefore, nothing more than advisers of the imperial power. 

The country itself is divided into twenty-seven districts for 
the purposes of administration and the collection of revenue, 
the latter being the chief occupation of the government officials 
throughout the kingdom. These districts are ruled by seven 
governor-generals, who are appointed by the shah and have 
the power of appointing sub-governors over the districts that 
come within their rule. The hakims, or governor-generals, 
also appoint kalantars in each town, and each parish has a 
ruler called the kedkhoda, also appointed by the hakim or in 
some cases by one of his sub-governors. In some cases the 
kalantars and kedkhodas are elected by the people, though 
this is by no means common. These different governors col- 
lect the revenue with the assistance of aids appointed by 
themselves. They also have charge of the judicial part of 
the government in their particular districts and decide cases 
without trial. The priests also have large judicial powers. A 
proclamation in 1878 announcing the introduction of trial 
according to European methods has never been fulfilled. 

The religion is the Shai'h branch of the Mohammedan faith. 
It is carried on by hosts of priests and their followers. Re- 
ligious superstition has a strong hold over the people and the 
church is a powerful force in the state. The great mass of the 
people have no education except an ability to read the Koran, 
but there are native colleges and a European Polytechnic 
School which introduces European studies to a limited degree. 

The Persian army is about 105,500 strong, consisting of the 
^ w? ^^^ following divisions : 

Artillery 5,000 

Cavalry 25,200 

Infantry 54,700 

Militia 7,200 

Others 13,400 

Total... 105,500 

The active standing army is, however, only about 24,000 strong. 
The navy consists of a screw steamship and a river boat. 

Within the last few years certain European methods have 
been introduced. There has grown up a little toleration of 
other religions. The Karun Biver has been opened to navi- 
gation and the English have tried to take advantage of this to 



PERSIA. 283 

introduce English and Indian merchandise in exchange for 
certain materials peculiar to Persia. . 

Russia, in like manner, has pushed the building of roads 
from the Caspian Sea on to Teheran, in the hopes of opening 
communication through the Caucasus into the center of 
Persia. There can be little doubt that both these undertakings, 
the Karun River on the south and the road on the north, are 
encouraged by the English government on the one hand, and 
the Russian government on the other to make the mobiUzation 
of troops possible at short notice in case of need. Persia, 
however, still remains one of the most uncivilized countries 
of the world. 



PERU. 



President, 



CoiiONEii Remigio Morales Bekmudez. 



MINISTRY. 

Minister of Foreign Affairs, president Dr. J. M. Jimenez 

Minister of Interior and Public Works , Gaston 

Minister of Finance and Commerce A. L. Gonzales 

Minister of Justice and Religion E. P. Figueroa 

Minister of War and Marine N. Rinz de Somocurcio 



TABLE OF STATISTICS. 



Provinces. 



Piura 

Cajamarca 

Amazonas 

Loreto 

Libertad 

Ancactis 

Lima ) 

Callao J 

Huancavelica 

Huanuco I 

Junin / 

lea 

Ayacuclio 

Cuzco 

Puno 

Arequlpa 

Moquegua 

Apurimac 

Lambayeque '. 

Total 



Area. 



13,931 
14,188 
14,129 
32,727 
15,649 
17,405 

14,760 

10,814 

33,822 

6,295 
24,213 
95,547 
39,743 

27,744 
22,516 
62,325 
17,979 



463,787 



Population. 



135,502 
213,391 

84,245 

61,125 
147,541 
284,091 
226,922 

34,492 
104,455 

78,856 
209,871 

60,111 
142,205 
238,445 
256,594 
160,282 

28,786 
119,246 

85,944 



2,622,104 



281 



PERU. 



The republic of Peru is situated in the central western part 
of South America. It is bounded on the north by Ecuador 
and part of Brazil, on the east by Brazil and Bolivia, on the 
south by Bolivia, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. The 
government is that of a re- 
public and the capital, 
Lima, has a population of 
101,488. 

In August, 1814, the na- 
tives and Peruvians of 
Spanish descent arose in 
rebellion against the rule 
of the Spanish viceroy, 
Pumacagua. They were, 
however, defeated in the 
following year. Five years 
later Lord Cochrane organ- 
ized a fleet of vessels at 
Valparaiso, and sailed 
northward with a force of 
Argentine troops under 
General San Martin. He 
landed on Peruvian soil, 
and after some fighting entered Lima, from which the viceroy 
had retired. He was received with acclamation by the people. 
A congress assembled in 1822 at which Aguero was chosen 
the first president of independent Peru. 

Simon Bolivar was now called in to assist the new govern- 
ment and maintain its newly acquired independence. He de- 
feated the Spanish troops in several engagements, and finally, 
at the battle of Ayacucho in 1824, he routed them so severely 
that Spanish rule in Peru was forever at an end. Bolivar tried 

285 




History 
since i8oo. 



286 GOVERXMEXTS OF THE WORLD TO-PAY. 

to force a constitution on Peru making himself dictator, but 
failing in this he retired with his Colombian army. After his 
departure General Lamar, who had commanded the Peruvian 
troops at Ayacucho, was elected president, but he proved in- 
capable of defending his government in the war which broke 
out with Colombia in 1S27, and he was deposed two years later. 

His successor, Greneral Gamarra, second president of Peru, 
entered upon his office in 1S29, and from 1S30 to 1S44 Peru went 
through a transition period in which the people were learning 
to govern themselves. Dictators came to the front, ruled for a 
time, and then fell. There were three constitutions adopted, 
one in 1S2S, one in 1833, and one in lSo9. After Gamarra came 
the poet-president Salaverry in 1S36, and Santa Cruz, one of 
the few really great statesmen Peru has had, succeeded him. 

In 1844 Castilla became president, and under his rule Peru 
had ten years of peace and progress. Castilla resigned in ISoO, 
but he was forced to return to office in 1855, owing to a finan- 
cial crisis that caused the people to turn to him again. And 
then Peru had peace once more, with the exception of two 
outbreaks, until 1879. 

A constitution had been adopted in 1856, which, with cer- 
tain changes made in 1860, is the basis of the present govern- 
ment. But with the retirement of Castilla, in 1862, Peru 
began to decline. Castilla had resumed the payment on the 
national debt and had reduced the debt itself to £4,000,000, 
strengthening the credit materially. His successor, Colonel 
Balta, increased the debt in four years to £50,000,000, so that 
when he retired in 1872 Pardo, his successor, found the state 
almost ruined. Pardo did all he could to put the state on a 
sound financial basis, but the shock had been too great, and 
when in 1876 he was succeeded by Prado the government was 
in a critical condition. 

The stringency in financial matters was in a measure obvi- 
ated by the discovery of enormous nitrate deposits in the 
southern pro\'ince of Peru. The government in 1S7S had 
mortgaged this territory to foreigners, and had thereby put its 
debt upon a somewhat firmer basis. This improvement was 
beginning to manifest itself when, in 1879, the Chilean war 
broke out. 

The Bolivian government had at the time of the discovery 



PERU. 287 

of these deposits received certain territory from Chile, on con- 
dition that the Chilean residents should not be taxed. When 
these • valuable discoveries caused an influx of foreigners into 
the Bolivian territory, the government placed a duty on ex- 
ports and Chile, declaring this to be a breach of the treaty, 
entered the territory with an armed force.* This was, how- 
ever, but one of the causes for the war. Chile realized what 
she had lost in parting with this territory and was willing to 
accept any cause for a quarrel with its possessor. The Chilean 
government had also recently learned that a secret treaty of 
alliance had been made between Peru and Bolivia in 1873. 

Fighting began in February, 1879, and the Chilean forces 
moved steadily northward until the province of Tarapaca, the 
territory in question, was entirely in the possession of the 
Chilean government, and Bolivia had lost her whole coast- 
line. Peru was now drawn into the contest, but the govern- 
ment troops were defeated in a series of engagements and the 
Chilean army advanced into Peruvian territory. Prado was 
forced to resign the presidency and fly from the country, all 
the failures of the Peruvian troops being laid at his door. He 
was succeeded by the vice-president. La Puerta, who met with 
no better success. 

At the same time revolutionary movements began to appear 
at the capital and an outbreak occurred, under the cover of 
which General Pierola assumed first the arbitrary control, and, 
four days later, the dictatorship of Peru. He has been called 
the evil genius of the country, so much has it suflered through 
him. In spite of all efibrts to the contrary, the Chilean troops 
continued to advance throughout the early part of the year 
1880, until Lima itself was threatened. At this moment the 
United States intervened in an attempt to bring about peace, 
but the Peruvian government refused to accept peace on the 
terms required by Chile, and fighting began again. 

Lima fell in 1881, and the Chilean general on entering the 
city assumed the government of Peru, and took control of the 
finances and the administration. For a time no one could be 
found to take charge of the government, but gradually Gen- 
eral Iglesias acquired the right to rule, and he was legally 
elected president in 1882. Peace was restored in the following 

* See Chile. 



288 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

year, and by the terms of the treaty Peru lost the province of 
Tarapaca. Chile agreed to carry out the engagements entered 
into by Peru concerning the nitrate regions and to pay fifty 
. per cent of the profits from this industry to the Peruvian gov- 
ernment. 

General Iglesias had, meantime, not only a penniless state 
to enrich, order to restore, and a government to set up, but he 
had also to contend with a rival, Caceres, who with a small 
following had tried to usurp the power when the state was 
without a head. Driven now into the interior, the latter raised 
a force of Indian troops and raided the country, gradually 
gaining more and more over to his side, until in 1885 he finally 
captured Lima and both he and Iglesias resigned their positions 
and called an election. Caceres became president in 1886, and 
succeeded in keeping the country at peace during his term of 
office. He was succeeded by Colonel Bermudez in 1890, and 
although the elections were by no means orderly, they were far 
quieter than usual. Since then the country has begun to show 
signs of improvement in spite of the deplorable condition in 
which it was left by the war. 

The present constitution of Peru dates from 1856. It was re- 
Constitu- vised in 1860, and remains to-day practically unchanged. Like 
those of other South American states the Peruvian constitution 
is modeled on that of the United States, but it is far less liberal 
than the latter in its details. The president has in reality ex- 
tensive powers, not given him by the constitution, by which he 
exercises more or less control over the legislation in the country. 

The legislative part of the government is put into the hands 
Legisia- of two houses, a Senate and a House of Representatives. The 
Senate is composed of members elected from the nineteen de- 
partments, one from every 30,000 inhabitants therein, or fraction 
over 15,000. The House of Representatives is composed of 
members elected by electoral colleges in each province, or sub- 
division of the departments. Where a department contains 
two provinces or more, it returns two representatives to the 
federal House of Representatives and one additional member 
for every two provinces in addition. There are in all one hun- 
dred and ten representatives. Thus the senators are returned 
by the departments at large and the representatives by the dif- 
ferent subdivisions of the departments. 



ture. 



PERU. 289 

The methods of procedure and the powers of the Congress 
are practically those of the United States Congress, the influ- 
ence of the president over legislation, however, being much 
greater than in the latter country. 

The executive portion of the government is in the hands of Executive, 
the president. He commands the army and navy, accredits 
and receives foreign deputations and emissaries, and appoints 
a cabinet or council of five members to assist him in the 
administration of the government. These ministers are re- 
sponsible to and removable by the president alone. He has 
the power of veto and in practice usually names his successor. 
The country has had such a checkered history that the presi- 
dent has often made himself practical dictator until over- 
thrown. 

The judicial system of the country is in a wretched condition, judiciary, 
there being little or no organized system of courts, and the 
representatives of foreign governments at Lima are compelled 
to watch the interest of their countrymen to protect them 
from injustice. 

The Roman Catholic Church is guaranteed by the state and 

the constitution forbids other forms of worship, though this is 

not strictly enforced. The University of San Marios is the 

oldest in America. There are besides smaller universities at 

Cuzco and Arequipa. Elementary education is supposed to be 

compulsory, though the system is by no means carried out. 

High schools are also maintained by the government, though 

students are obliged to pay a small fee. 

The total nailitary force of Peru does not exceed 6,000 men in ^ 

•^ Army and 

time of peace. The entire male population over twenty-one Navy. 

years of age is available in time of war as a militia, though it 

is of no great value. 

The navy consists of one cruiser and of one or two smaller 

craft. 



PORTUGAL. 



King, 



Carlos I. 



RULERS SINCE 1800. 

Joan Jose 1796-1816 

John VI 1816-1826 

Pedro IV.: 1826-1826 

Maria II 1826-1828 

Miguel 1 1828-1834 

Maria II. (restored) 1834-1853 

Pedro V 1853-1861 

Luis 1 1861-1889 

Carlos 1 1889- 

MINISTRY. 

Minister of Finance and premier E. R. Hintze Ribeiro 

Minister of the Interior F. F. Pinto Castello Branco 

Minister of Justice ...A. A. Castello Branco 

Minister of Foreign Affairs C. L. D'Avila 

Minister of War Col. L. A. Pimentel Pinto 

Minister of Navy and Colonies J. A. de Brissac dos Neves Ferreira 

Minister of Public Works and Commerce Campos Henriques 



TABLE OF STATISTICS. 



Province. 



Minho-e-Douro — Vianna, Braga, 

Porto 

Tras-os-Montes— Villa Real, Bra- 

ganga 

Beira — Aveiro, Castello Branco, 

Coimbra, Guarda, Vizeu 

Estremadura — Leiria, Lisbon, 

Santarem 

Alemtejo— Beja, Evora, Portalegre 

Algarve 

Azores and Madeira 

Total 



Area. 



2,807 

2,293 

9,248 

6,876 
9,431 
1,873 
1,510 



34,038 



Population. 



1,014,768 

396,676 

1,377,432 

946,472 
367,169 
204,037 
401,624 



4,708,178 



290 



PORTUGAL* 

The kingdom of Portugal is situated at the extreme end of 
the Spanish peninsula. It is bounded on the west and south 
by the Atlantic Ocean, and the north and east by the kingdom 
of Spain. The government is that of a limited monarchy 
with a constitution and a representative legislature. Lisbon 
is the capital with a population of 246,343. 

The nineteenth century has been the most critical century History 
in Portuguese history. The progress of the nation from abso- since iSoo. 
lutism, from the Inquisition, and from feudal laws and cus- 
toms, to a constitutional government, has only been accom- 
plished by nearly three quarters of a century of bloodshed and 
crime and financial ruin. At the beginning of the century the 
government and people, though influenced to some extent by 
the French Revolution, were still in a medieval state of civili- 
zation. The state had been important in past centuries, but 
had remained stationary while other nations progressed. 

At the end of the last century, the precarious condition of 
the queen's health had compelled her consort to take the reins 
of the government into his own hands, and it was in this un- 
certain condition that the state entered upon the Peninsular 
War, which Napoleon waged against it from 1807 until his fall 
in 1815. Throughout this period the English supported the 
Portuguese against the French, and under the vigorous lead- 
ership of the English generals the Portuguese government 
became demoralized. Don Pedro fled with -Maria to Brazil in 
1807, leaving a Council of Regency composed largely of English- 
men to rule the state. 

The vigorous measures of the English generals, especially of 
Marshal Beresford, gave the Portuguese troops the upper hand 
in the struggle, on the whole, and in 1816 the state, though weak- 
ened, still remained independent. In this year the queen died 

* For map see under Spain, 

291 



292 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

in Brazil and Pedro became king under the title of John VI. 
The Council of Regency, though of great service during the 
military campaign, proved to be too severe for carrying on the 
administration in time of peace. This severity, added to the 
fact that their rulers were foreigners, goaded the Portuguese to 
insurrection in 1817. Beresford went to Brazil in 1820 to urge 
the return of the king, which was finally accomplished in 1822. 
The Radicals had meantime gained control of the government 
and appointed an assembly to draw up a constitution. This 
constitution of 1822 was a wild attempt to settle the difficulties 
that had existed so long in the Portuguese government. It 
showed the influence of the French Revolution, but embodied 
few of the benefits that should have been gained from that 
event. 

The king, however, was compelled to agree to it, though 
most of the foreign ambassadors had been recalled on its pro- 
mulgation. Hardly a year had passed when the Count of 
Amarante, seeing that the queen and the king's brother, Don 
Miguel, opposed the new constitution, headed a revolt that 
might have overthrown the government had not the king 
foresworn the new administration and returned to the absolute 
form of government. 

The breach formed at this time divided the state into two 
parties, the one composed of the followers of Don Miguel 
standing in opposition, the other supjJorting the existing lib- 
eral government. The insurrection itself was suppressed by 
the influence of foreign courts, and the king deemed it wise to 
again leave for Brazil. He died there in 1826 proclaiming in 
his will his daughter, Isabel Maria, regent of Portugal. Don 
Pedro, the king's son, became ruler of Brazil, and his brother 
returned to Europe to push his claims to the Portuguese throne. 
The new Brazilian ruler appointed his daughter, Maria da 
Gloria, heir to the throne of Portugal and then abdicated all 
claim to the throne. One condition of his abdication and the 
appointment of his daughter to be heir-apparent was that she 
should marry Don Miguel, and at the same time he promul- 
gated a charter, or constitution, its adoption being also a con- 
dition of his abdication. This constitution of 1826 is the 
basis of the present government. It was a modification of that 
of 1822 with the socialistic tendencies removed. It was 



PORTUGAL. 293 

heartily received by the people, and, in 1827, with Pamella at 
the head of the government and Don Miguel as consort, the 
country began its constitutional life. 

The period from this date until the accession of Pedro in 
1853 is one of constant changes of government, of the rise and 
fall of the Constitutionalists and the Absolutists, the financial 
condition of the state, meantime, being left to arrange itself. 
As one party or the other came into power it repudiated the 
debts of its predecessor and Portuguese credit was worthless 
abroad. It was the final struggle of medieval feudalism with 
the modern system of government by the people. 

Miguel had scarcely become settled as consort when, in 
1828, he began a movement against the constitution which 
grew to such proportions that in 1832 Pedro IV. of Brazil was 
compelled to sail for Portugal. He was besieged on his arrival 
in the city of Oporto and was finally rescued only by the inter- 
vention of the British fleet under Napier. The siege itself was 
one of the remarkable events in Portuguese history, lasting as 
it did for nearly a year. 

The insurrectionists under Miguel having been finally dis- 
persed. Queen Maria and Pedro entered Lisbon and pro- 
claimed again the constitution of 1826. Peace might now have 
been restored had not Pedro, the real stay of the govern- 
ment, died in the following year. The queen, who was there- 
upon declared of age, was only fifteen years old, and was 
quite incapable of holding the many different factions of the 
government together. In 1836 an insurrection put the more 
advanced Republicans into power, and under the leadership 
of Caldeira they re-introduced the constitution of 1822. They 
managed to hold control of the state until 1842, when another 
revolt returned Pedro's more suitable charter of 1826. Then 
the management of the state was intrusted to the Count of 
Thomar, who gradually introduced one measure after another, 
bringing the power into the hands of the queen's representa- 
tive and taking it away from the representatives of the people. 

This movement brought on within the next few years an- 
other insurrection, known as the War of Maria da Fonte, 
which was the rise of the Constitutionalists against the Abso- 
lutists and which ended in the Granada Convention of June, 
1847. 



294 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

After the death of Maria II., iii 1853, and a two years' re- 
gency of Fernando II., her husband, Don Pedro V., became 
king of Portugal, and then the peaceful era in the country's 
history began. The constitution of 1826 was again introduced 
and the elections returned a majority for the Constitutionalists. 
There were frequent but ineffectual outbreaks during the next 
few years, but when, in 1861, King Luis ascended the throne 
on the death of Pedro, the party lines had become clearly 
drawn and the people had become accustomed to constitutional 
government. Since then Portugal has become more firmly set- 
tled in peace as time advanced. Tlie revolutionists are now a 
part of the past. Their power over the people grew less and 
less, until when in 1870 Saldanha, one of tlie greatest men of the 
revohitionary period, tried to bring about another insurrection, 
he met with little or no support. King Luis maintained the 
constitutional form of government, making his ministers re- 
sponsible to the Cortes and carrying on the state under a con- 
stitution remodeled on that of 1826 and 1852. The era of literary 
and artistic development that followed was of great service in 
uniting the different factions of the country in a common pride 
for the growth of their land. This has in the last ten years, 
with the experience derived from peaceful administration, 
established the present form of government and maintained 
peace. 

The present constitution of Portugal dates from the one 
tion. adopted in 1826, which was in turn formed on the Brazilian 
constitution introduced by the emperor Pedro IV. It has been 
amended since then in 1852, 1878, and 1885. 

There are two legislative houses, the Chamber of Peers (Cam- 
Legisia- ^^'^ ^^® Pares) and the Chamber of Deputies (Camara dos 
ture. Deputados), which are called the Cortes. The Chamber of 
Peers is undergoing a gradual change from an hereditary to a 
representative house under the amendments carried through 
in 1885. By an amendment passed in 1878 the king was given 
the right to nominate members of the Upper House from some 
twenty different classes including the nobility, clergy, etc., 
and since that time over one hundred have been added. The 
rearrangement made in 1885 provides for a reduction for this 
part of the Chamber. The king may now nominate only one 
member for every three vacancies, and only those peers already 



PORTUGAL. 295 

in the Chamber in 1885 and their immediate successors can 
retain their seats. Besides these, fifty members are now ap- 
pointed or elected as follows: five by the universities and 
learned societies and two from each of the nineteen adminis- 
trative districts, with the exception of Lisbon and Oporto, 
which return four and three respectively. A candidate for this 
part of the Chamber must be thirty-five years of age and have 
certain property qualifications. Under this arrangement it is 
apparent that the Chamber of Peers will in time consist only 
of senators who have been chosen by the people. 

The members of the Chamber of Deputies are chosen by an 
almost universal suflrage, the qualification for electorship being 
that a voter must be twenty-one years of age, able to read and 
write, and in possession of an income of 109 milreis a year, or 
about 12.00 a week. Candidates for the Lower Chamber must 
have an income of 365 milreis a year, but scholars and mem- 
bers of the learned professions are exempted from this property 
qualification. There are at present 149 deputies who are re- 
turned from 94 electoral districts, including those from Madeira 
and the Azores. The Chambers meet at the same time and the 
term continues for three months in each year. Elections occur 
once in four years if not oftener. Members of the Chamber of 
Deputies receive a salary of about |2.50 a day during the session. 
In case the Cortes is dissolved it must be summoned again im- 
mediately, new elections having been held ; and bills that have 
passed both Houses cannot be vetoed by the sovereign. 

The king is the executive officer of the government, and the Executive, 
crown may descend to either male or female descendants, 
though preference is given to the male descendant where the 
birthrights are equal. The sovereign has the usual preroga- 
tives, such as the command-in-chief of the army and the right 
to name and receive foreign emissaries. He may take the ad- 
vice of the privy council, which is composed of sixteen mem- 
bers nominated by himself for life. 

There is a High Supreme Court at Lisbon which is the final judiciary, 
court for the whole Portuguese dominion. Below this there 
are Courts of Cassation at Oporto, Lisbon, and the Azores, and 
primary courts in all the principal towns of the districts. 

There is a fourth division in the Portuguese government 
called the " moderating power " which is vested in the king. 



296 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

The Roman Catholic is the state church and receives certain 
endowments from the state, but other creeds are tolerated. 
Education is in a disorganized condition, though nominally 
compulsory. The University of Coimbra is the chief educa- 
tional institution. 
Army and There are seven fortified places in the kingdom. The army 
Navy. consists of all able-bodied men twenty-one years of age with 
certain carefully stated exceptions. Each year the Cortes votes 
the army bill and decides upon the effective body to be main- 
tained through the year. Each man must serve three years 
with the active army, five in the Landwehr, or first reserve, 
and four in the Landsturm, or second reserve. The peace foot- 
ing of the army is 37,273, and 150,000 can be put into the field 
in time of war. 

The navj^ consists of an ironclad, 14 gunboats, 5 torpedo 
boats, 6 corvettes, and 3 transports. 



ROUMANIA. 

King, Carol I. 

MINISTRY. 

Minister of the Interior and premier L. Catargi. 

Minister of Agriculture P, P. Carp. 

Minister of Foreign Affairs A. Lahovari. 

Minister of Finance M. Germani. 

Minister of Justice General A. Margliiloman. 

Minister of Public Works C. Olanesca. 

Minister of Public Instruction and Worship....T. Jonesco. 
Minister of War General C. Poeuaro. 

The kingdom of Roumania is in the district lying north of 
the Balkan Peninsula and south of Russia and Austria. It is 
hounded on the north by Austria, on the east by Russia, on 
the south by Bulgaria, and on the west by Servia and Austria. 
The government is a constitutional monarchy under an inde- 
pendent sovereign king. Bucharest is the capital with a popu- 
lation of 221,805 according to the latest census — 1876. 

The total area of Roumania is 48,307 square miles and the 
population is about 5,500,000, made up of Roumanians, Jews, 
Gypsies, Bulgarians, Germans, Magyars, Arm.enians, French, 
English, etc. 

The territory occupied by the kingdom of Roumania was in Historical 
1800 under the control of Turkey. The perpetual rivalry of sketch. 
Russia, Austria, and Turkey for the possession of the entrance 
to the Black Sea, and all that that possession means, has led to 
a series of wars running through the present century between 
Russia and Turkey with the other powers of Europe ranged on 
■either side. The seat of war is naturally on the border-line of 
Turkey in Europe and Russia. This strip of land along the 
Black Sea and extending some distance up the Danube is oc- 
cupied by Moldavia and Wallachia, which in 1800 were both 
under Turkish suzerainty. Partly from ties of blood and partly 
from their common cause to be defended against a common 
■enemy, these two provinces were in sympathy with each other 
and fought together for a union and the formation of an inde- 

297 



298 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

pendent government. The Turkish rule had been atrocious for 
many years, and in 1804 the inhabitants revolted. The Porte 
took vengeance by putting to death the hospodar, or ruler of 
Wallachia. Whereupon Russia took up the cause of the prov- 
inces and declared war upon Turkey. The peace of Bucharest 
in 1812 gave to Russia the northern portion of Moldavia called 
Bessarabia, and the Russian government, being satisfied with 
this, gave the two provinces over to Turkish rule again. 

After this episode, whenever Russia and Turkey entered up- 
on a campaign, the two provinces were likely to be the terri- 
tory where the fighting occurred, and when peace was again 
arranged each of the powers took to itself whatever of their 
territory it could. The provinces stood, therefore, between two 
fires, occasionally deprived of small portions of their territory 
and yet safe from absolute absorption by either because of the 
intervention of the other European governments to preserve 
the balance of power in the East. 

Ypsilanti, the leader of the party of union in the two prov- 
inces, tried in 1821 to bring about a common government for 
Moldavia and Wallachia, and to further that purpose he went 
to Bucharest and Jassy collecting military forces. Again the 
result was an invasion of both Turks and Russians and a war 
that ended in the peace of Adrianople in 1829. The provinces 
again suffered, but the party of union was stronger than ever, 
and a plan was put through which has established a common 
government in the two provinces under an organic law. This 
was an illiberal government of bishops and nobles under a 
Russian protectorate. It took the Turkish government until 
1834 to ratify this and for five years, therefore, Russian troops 
were quartered in the territory. 

In 1848 the Wallachians, fired by the revolutions that were 
passing over Europe, rose in a body and demanded a constitu- 
tional government, but within a year Turkish intervention 
had again introduced the old system. Then, in 1853, the 
Crimean War began in Wallachian territory, and the destruc- 
tion of life and property was widespread over the entire prov- 
ince. By the treaty of Paris in 1856, which ended the Crimean 
War, part of Bessarabia was returned to Moldavia and the in- 
tegrity of Wallachian rule within its territory was insured, 
though the country was still under the suzerainty of Turkey. 



ROUMANIA. 299 

Steps toward a union now began in earnest, but the project 
was opposed by the powers lest a too powerful state thus 
formed along the Danube should complicate the Eastern Ques- 
tion still further. Each province, however, proceeded to nomi- 
nate the same man as a candidate for its ruler, and in 1859 
Prince Alexander John Cuza became ruler of both Moldavia 
and Wallachia. Two years later by an agreement signed at 
the two capitals the new state was named Roumania. By 
1862 a single ministry and a single house were formed for 
both provinces. In 1865, political disturbances arising in 
both provinces, another legislative house was formed. In 
the following year, the political hostility to Prince Cuza 
arose to such a height that he was forced to fly from the coun- 
try, and Prince Charles of Hohenzollern was elected hospodar 
of the united provinces in his place. A new and more liberal 
constitution adapted from that of France was introduced. 

It was only eleven years later, in 1877, that Russia again ad- 
vanced on the Ottoman Empire^ and the fighting again took 
place on Wallachian territory. The inhabitants of the newly 
made country joined the Russians and captured Plevna. 
By the treaty of San Stefano in 1878 Bessarabia was again 
absorbed by Russia, and Dobrudja was taken from Tur- 
key and given to Roumania. At the Berlin Congress in the 
same year Roumania was constituted an independent princi- 
pality, and in 1881 Prince Charles was crowned king of the new 
kingdom of Roumania. 

The contemporary history of Roumanian politics has been 
one of continually changing ministries, caused by the fail- 
ure of the government to obtain a strong majority. There 
are so many parties and each is so small that it is difficult to 
bring about any legislation. The Irredentists are perhaps the 
strongest, and the Russophiles, the National Liberals, the 
Young Conservatives, the Conservatives, the Boiars, and the 
old Feudal party, all have a proportionately respectable fol- 
lowing, not however sufficient to give any one of them the 
control of the Chambers for any length of time. The min- 
istry changed four times in 1891 over the excitement on the 
proposal of the crown prince to marry a Roumanian lady 
instead of a member of some royal family. Serious trouble to 

* See Russia and Austria. 



300 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



Constitu- 
tion. 



Legisla- 
ture. 



the government was finally avoided, toward the close of the 
year, by the breaking off of the betrothal. 

It became evident to the powers after the Turkish war in the 
middle of the century that the land lying between Russia, 
Turkey, and Austria should have a guaranteed sovereignty as 
being the best solution of the question involved in their ex- 
istence. After the revolution of 1866 a constitution was drawn 
up by a national assembly. This has stood through the changes 
in politics since that date with some minor changes in 1879 and 
1884. The systems introduced are on the model of those of 
the French Republic. It provides for trial by jury and abso- 
lute freedom of the press. This last is minutely and fully 
guaranteed by the constitution, for this has been one of the 
most longed for privileges of the Eastern European peoples. 
Free assembly is granted to the people also. 

There are two legislative houses, who with the king con- 
stitute the legislative portion of the government. Each House 
may originate bills, and the king also. They meet in joint as- 
sembly, when required by difference of opinion regarding a 
bill, and in other general features the parliamentary system 
of the French Chamber is in force. The Chambers meet on 
the 15th of November of each year and sit three months. 

The Senate is composed of one hundred and twenty mem- 
bers who serve an eight years' term. The two universities at 
Jassy and Bucharest each return one senator, and eight are 
chosen among the bishops. The heir-apparent has a seat in 
the Senate. Otherwise the senatorial candidates must be 
forty years of age, natural-born or naturalized Roumanians 
resident in the country, and having an income of |1,800. The 
qualifications for electoral rights in the senatorial districts are 
of two kinds, both existing in each electoral district. One sen- 
ator is returned from each district. There are two electoral 
colleges, one made up of men owning estates in Roumania 
outside the towns, and the other including those having the 
same income limit and having property in the towns. There 
must be one hundred electors in each district. In case the 
number is not made up by those having this income, it is 
filled by those next in scale. 

The Chamber of Deputies is composed of one hundred and 
eighty-three members who are elected to serve four years. 



ROUMANIA. 



301 



They must also be native or naturalized citizens of at least 
twenty-five years of age. All males twenty-one years of age 
who are taxpayers are voters. They are divided into three 
electoral colleges in each district. These are : (1) owners of 
property worth not less than $235 ; (2) taxpayers paying over 
§6.00 per annum, including professional men ; (8) all other 
taxpayers over twenty-one years of age. 

The king is the executive, having the usual powers of a mon- 
arch. He is commander of the army and accredits and re- 
ceives diplomatic agents, etc. He may dissolve the Chambers, 
but must call an election within two months again, and open 
the C'hambers within three months. He may also adjourn the 
Chambers for one month, but only once in the same session. 

There is a Supreme Court, or High Court of Cassation and 
Justice, at Bucharest and there is a civil court in each canton or 
commune. Trial by jury is in force in criminal and political 
trials. 

The army is divided into the regular army and the terri- 
torial army, with their reserves, the militia, the civic guard, 
and a general liability to service for any male Roumanian be- 
tween the ages of sixteen and forty-six. There are five mili- 
tary districts, each including an army corps. The regular 
army consists of 38,871 officers and men, which, with a terri- 
torial army of 81,843, gives a general total of 129,714 available 
men. 

For administrative purposes the state is divided into can- 
tons which are again divided into districts, and these in turn 
into communes. The first and the last have local governments 
under electoral councils, prefects, and mayors. 

The Greek Orthodox Church is the state church with a com- 
plicated system of bishops under a metropolitan and arch- 
bishops. Education is backward, though it is supposed to be 
free and compulsory. There are 3,000 primary schools, high 
and normal schools, and two universities. 



Executive. 



Judiciary. 



Army. 



Local gov- 
ernment. 



RUSSIA. 



Tsar, - - Alexander IV. 

RULERS SINCE 1800. 

Paul I ; 1801 

Alexander 1 1801-1825 

Nicolas 1 1825-1855 

Alexander II 1855-1881 

Alexander III 1881-1894 

Alexander IV 1894- 

MINISTERS. 

Minister of the Imperial House General Count VoroutzoflF-Dashkoff 

Minister of Foreign Affairs Nicolas C. de Giers 

Minister of War General Vannofsky 

Minister of Navy Vice-Admiral Tchikhatchoff 

Minister of Interior Privy Councilor Durnovo 

Minister of Public Instruction Privy Councilor Del j^anoff 

Minister of Finance Privy Councilor S. J, Witte 

Minister of Justice Privy Councilor Mouraview 

Minister of State's Dominions Privy Councilor A, S. Yermolow 

Minister of Public Works and Railroads General Annenkoff 

Minister for Finland W. C. de Daehn 

Department of General Control Privy Councilor Filipoff 

TABLE OF STATISTICS. 



Province. 



In Europe: 
Russia proper : 

51 provinces 

Poland : 

10 provinces 

Grand Duchy of Finland : 

8 provinces 

Total, Russia in Europe 

In Asia: 
Northern Caucasia: 

3 provinces 

Trans-Caucasia : 

7 provinces 

Kirghiz Steppe : 

5 provinces 

Turkestan : 

4 provinces 

Trans-Caspia 

Western Siberia : 

2 provinces 

Eastern Siberia : 

4 provinces 

Amur Region 

Sakhalin 

Total, Russia in Asia , 

Grand total, Russian Empire 



Area. 



1,902,092 

49,157 

144,255 



2,095,504 

89,497 

91,346 

755,793 

409,414 
214,237 

870,818 

3,044,512 

888,830 
29,336 



6,393,783 



8,489,287 



Population. 



88,906,921 
8,900,418 
2,380,140 



100,187,479 

2,860,247 

5,011,555 

2,000,970 

3,341,913 
276,709 

2,623,129 

1,705,297 

190,491 

19,644 



18,029,955 



118,217,434 



302 



RUSSIA. 



The empire of Eussia stretches from the eastern coast of the 
Baltic to the Pacific Ocean. It is bounded on the north by the 
Arctic Ocean and the undiscovered waters which that name 
includes, from longitude 20° east from Greenwich eastward to 
170° west from Green- 
wich, or within ten 
degrees of one half 
the circle of the globe 
in that latitude. The 
empire is bounded on 
the east by the Pa- 
cific Ocean and 
China, on the south 
by China, India, 
Turkestan, Turkey, 
the Black Sea, and 
Austria, and on the 
west by Germany, 
Austria, the Black 
Sea, and Sweden and 
Norway. European 
Russia, or Russia 



proper, is 



divided 
and 
Ural 




from Siberia 
Asia by the 

Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, and the Cau- 
casian Mountains. The government is an hereditary, absolute 
monarchy. St. Petersburg is the capital with a population of 
1,003,315.*^ 

In the wars against Napoleon, Alexander of Russia was gen- 
erally on the side of the allies. He made peace with France 
and England in 1801, but in four years he joined the third 
union of Europe against Napoleon, put 21,000 men into the 

303 



History 
since i8oo. 



304 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

battle of Austerlitz, and after the treaty of Pressburg joined 
the fourth coalition against the French emperor in 1806, and 
finally, in the peace of Tilsit, he worked in secret with Napoleon 
and seemed on the whole to be more favorable to him than to 
the allies. In 1809 Finland wa§ conquered from Sweden and 
added to the Russian Empire, and in the sanie year came the 
fifth coalition of Europe against Napoleon. Alexander tried 
to avert the war, but failed and got into war himself with Tur- 
key. Russia in 1812 took Bessarabia, Moldavia, and Wallachia, 
but in the treaty of Bucharest she was obliged to give up the 
two latter. 

At the same time, the enforced blockade to which Alexander 
had agreed with Napoleon was injuring Russia, and it was 
through the non-observance of this that the invasion of Russia 
by Napoleon's army was caused in 1812. On Napoleon's ar- 
rival at Moscow the city was razed by the inhabitants and in 
the dead of winter the French were obliged to retreat through 
Germany to France. 

After the fall of Napoleon, at the Congress of Vienna, Alex- 
ander held the place of honor among European sovereigns, 
and Russia's role from this time until Alexander's death was 
that of adviser and arbitrator. The Russian forces aided in 
suppressing revolutions wherever they occurred and in curtail- 
ing the Turkish rule in Europe. 

When Alexander came to the throne he began with more lib- 
eral principles than his predecessor and promised to institute 
a constitutional government, to free the serfs, etc. He, how- 
ever, found it impossible at the time to accomplish this. His 
premier until 1812, Speranski, was a man of remarkable ability 
and great liberality of ideas. Like Stein and Hardenburg in 
Prussia, and Turgot, Louis XVI. 's minister, he was too liberal 
for his time and made enemies on all sides until finally in 1812 
he was removed through the misrepresentations of the aristo- 
cratic party. 

Alexander did, however, introduce a Council of State in 1810 
under Speranski's advice, and this council Is still one of the 
Grand Colleges of the government. Speranski's successor, 
Araktcheff, was made the chief adviser of the tsar. His pol- 
icy was in direct opposition to that of Speranski, but Alexan- 
der still maintained many of his liberal views. Poland, for ex- 



RUSSIA. 305 

ample, received a constitution, which the tsar as king of Poland 
swore to observe. He opened libraries and in other ways strove 
to introduce the more advanced ideas of England and France. 
But the traditions of the Russian people were too strong to 
admit of such sudden advance, and Alexander, discovering his 
inability to raise his people, gradually fell into a retired, moody 
existence, discouraged with his powerlessness to better their 
condition. In this state of mind he went to the Congresses of 
Troppau and Laibach. There and later he came under the in- 
fluence of Metternich, prime nainister of Austria, and was led 
to join the Holy Alliance, which grew to be nothing naore than 
a power for crushing free thought out of Europe. 

On the death of Alexander I., in 1825, Constantin, his brother 
and the next heir, resigned his right to the crown and Nicolas, 
son of Paul I., became the tsar. The resignation of Constantin 
had been made secretly in 1822, and as Nicolas knew nothing 
of this there were a few days in December, 1825, when Russia 
had no ruler. This interregnum was enough to stimulate the 
secret societies to a revolt. The cry was raised of " Constantin 
and the Constituzia " (constitution), which the people took for 
"Constantin and his wife Constituzia" — so little did they 
understand then what a constitution meant. By vigorous 
measures on the part of the St. Petersburg troops the revolt 
was quelled and Nicolas proclaimed tsar. 

One of the earliest works of Nicolas was to reestablish Rus- 
sian traditions in the government and in the life of the people 
so far as he could. Paul T. had favored German principles. 
Alexander I. was a great admirer of the Code Napoleon. But 
Nicolas I. published in 1830 the complete "Collection of the 
Laws of the Russian Empire," which was a codification of 
the existing laws with some additions on his own part in 
several of the departments of state. The system of tribunals 
was improved, the state of which can be imagined by the fact 
that 2,850,000 cases were awaiting settlement. He instituted 
the Holy Synod under Protassof and pushed forward trans- 
portation facilities throughout the empire. It was his purpose 
to emancipate the serfs, but that was left for his successor to 
accomplish. 

In 1826 it became evident that Persia under the secret pro- 
tection of England was planning an advance into the country 



306 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

acquired by Russia from, her under the treaty of Gulistan. 
Troops were at once sent into the territory of Arax under the 
Russian general, Ermlof, against Abbas Mirza, and by 1828 the 
Russians were in the city of Tauris and threatening Teheran, 
the Persian capital. Peace was made at Tourkmantchai on the 
10th of February, 1828, by the clauses of which Persia paid 20,- 
000,000 rubles and gave up Erivan and Nahitchevan to Russia. 
At the same time the relations of Russia and Turkey became 
strained. Russia always looks toward the Porte as its goal 
and takes advantage of any pretext to open hostilities with 
Turkey, on the chance that it may conquer the country and 
enter Constantinople. For this reason if for no other the 
tsar now favored Grecian independence, and called on Europe 
to interfere and put a stop to the atrocities the Turks and 
Egyptians were committing in Greece. He claimed this right 
to interfere on the time-honored ground that Christians were 
being maltreated by barbarians. Consequently, in 1826, an 
ultimatum was issued to the Porte, demanding the evacuation 
of the Danube provinces ; the carrying out of the clause of the 
treaty of Bucharest, by which Servia was to have an autono- 
mous government under the suzerainty of the sultan ; and de- 
manding further some guarantee against such slaughter as that 
of the Greeks in Constantinople. 

The Porte refused to accept this and war was declared. The 
Russians advanced through Wallachia and Moldavia and cap- 
tured Adrianople in 1829. Constantinople was within a short 
distance when the powers interfered to save Turkey again. 
The Porte yielded and the Russian forces retired. 

The battle of Navarino had been fought in 1827* by the 
allied powers against the Turkish fleet, but the fear of Russian 
advance on Constantinople caused the powers to turn against 
Russia on the side of Turkey. The Turkish government, 
however, recognized the independence of Greece, ceded the 
delta of the Danube and four fortresses on the border in Asia 
to Russia. She paid an indemnity, guaranteed the autonomy 
of Wallachia, Servia, and Moldavia, and declared the Bos- 
phorus and the Dardanelles open to all powers at peace with 
the Porte. Such was the result of the war. 

In 1831 the Poles revolted against Russian rule. The dissat- 



* See Greece. 



RUSSIA. 307 

isf action began before Alexander I. died, but the revolution in 
Paris in 1830 brought on the climax. Fighting occurred in Po- 
land and a large number of Russian troops was required to quell 
the revolt. The result was the extinction of the kingdom of 
Poland, though the final settlement was not completed until 
1844. 

In the meantime the relations of Russia and France had be- 
come strained. The Revolution of 1830 and the accession of 
Liouis Philippe began the rupture, which was only heightened 
by the French sympathy for Poland. Furthermore, in 1832, 
Russia came to the aid of Turkey against the Egyptian forces 
under Ibrahim, the son of Mehemet Ali, and concluded a 
treaty that practically allowed the tsar to maintain an armed 
force in Turkey. This again aroused France and England, and 
the Eastern Question became more and more involved. In 
1848 came the revolutions all over Europe which Russia tried 
to check in Italy and Germany, but without success. Then 
the interference of France in the affairs of the Holy Land in 
opposition to Turkey, and of Austria with the affairs of Monte- 
negro, stimulated Russia to interfere also and demand from 
Turkey a reacknowledgment of the right of the government 
to protect Christians in the Orient. Turkey, feeling sure of 
the aid of the European powers, refused. An ultimatum was 
sent from St. Petersburg again, and in its wake a declaration 
of war, on the ground that treaties had been broken by allow- 
ing France to meddle with the Christians of the East. 

In 1853 the tsar tried to win over England to his side, and 
he not only failed of this but soon found a combination of the 
powers forming against him. From such slight causes as 
these began the Crimean War. It was the fear of European 
governments that Russia was on the road to the possession of 
Constantinople, and this joined Austria, France, and England 
against her. 

The fleet of the allies, gathered in the Black Sea, and the 
land forces compelled the Russian troops to retreat until in 
1854 the whole Russian army was shut up in the fortress of 
Sevastopol in the Crimea. The siege lasted nearly a year and 
is the most famous one in modern history. But the city fell 
on the 8th of September, 1855, and the treaty of Paris of 1856 
marked the close of a war that hardly had a cause. 



308 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

Turkey was now for the first time admitted to European 
diplomacy, with a seat in the Congress. 

By the new treaty Russia had agreed not to interfere 
with the Danube provinces, and the Danube had been 
made free to all. The Black Sea was neutralized also, 
and all ships of war of whatever nation are forbidden to enter 
it. By this treaty, therefore, Russia lost the Black Sea and all 
the fortresses on it. The Emperor Nicolas died in 1855 and 
was succeeded by Alexander II. 

With the end of the war and the accession of Alexander II., 
who had the same liberal conceptions as Alexander I., a new 
era of 1 iberal ideas began. Freedom of the press was demanded ; 
agitation on the question of the emancipation of the serfs was 
begun and was taken up by the government in earnest. The 
civil code was reorganized. Finally, on the 19th of February, 
1861, the law for the emancipation of the serfs was carried 
through. Peasants who were attached to the soil were given 
the rights of free cultivators. They were given the full en- 
joyment of the land they were connected, with, or a certain 
quantity of arable land ; but they were obliged to pay a certain 
tax to the state. The landlords sold to the peasants the land 
they were settled on, or gave it to the communes, the price and 
amount of land being more or less, according to its fertility. 
The government organized a method for helping the peasant to 
pay the landlord, making the former the debtor of the state 
rather than of the landlord, and giving him a much longer 
time in which to make his payment than he could expect from 
the latter. A magistracy was instituted throughout the coun- 
try to conduct negotiations involving the putting of the law in 
force. The free peasants were then organized into communes 
having certain local rights. There were naturally many col- 
lisions of classes after the passage of the law, but this peaceful 
emancipation of 12,500,000 men is one of the remarkable facts 
in European history. 

In 1861 the last attempt of Poland to gain its independence 
was made. It ran through two years or more. Alexander II. 
tried by giving the remnants of the Poles a little more auton- 
omy and by appointing a new governor to pacify the country, 
but he was compelled to disband the Agricultural Society, 
which was the head of the revolt, and that only led to more 



RUSSIA. 309 

severe riots and finally to open war. In 1863 the European 
powers interfered and recommended a plan for a settlement of 
the question, which the Russian government refused to con- 
sider. Russia and Prussia joined each other in settling the 
matter, and in 1867 the kingdom of Poland was wiped out of 
the map of Europe. The language disappeared, and in the 
place of this historic state ten provinces were added to Russia 
and several to Prussia. Poland lost all her institutions and 
Russian systems appeared everywhere. 

After 1870 the long meditated reforms of Alexander were put 
into effect. Strategic railroads were built to open the country 
and serve as military communications of one part of the huge 
empire with another. In 1872 systems of compulsory educa- 
tion were introduced, and in 1876 eight universities were 
opened. 

The government of Russia is based on an enormous number Govem- 
of laws and decrees of the emperors. These were codified as 
they practically stand at present by Nicolas I. in 1839. Since 
then there have been several changes, and decrees (ukases) 
have been issued as follows : 

1801, Alexander guaranteed right of nobility. 

1802, Holy Synod and Ruling Senate remodeled. 
1810, Council of the Empire established. 

1816, Emancipation of serfs in Esthonia. 

1817, " " " " Courland. 
1819, *• " " " Livonia. 
1861, General emancipation. 

1864, Present system of judicial administration. 
1867, The kingdom of Poland destroyed and the territory 
miade part of Russia. 
1870, Municipal institution extended to large towns. 

1874) 

^ ^ V Modification of rural system. 

1881 J ^ 

The legislative as well as the executive authority is with the The tsar, 
tsar. The emperor, or tsar, is the absolute autocrat of all the 
Russias and there is no appeal from his final decision. The 
government is extremely centralized in this one man and is at 
present apparently growing more centralized still. He is suc- 
ceeded by the next heir according to the law of primogeniture, 



310 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



Council of 

the 
Empire. 



The 
Senate. 



and every subject in the empire who is a citizen, even if he be 
in prison, is obliged to take the oath of allegiance to him. He 
carries on the government by positive laws, and his decrees 
have the force of laws throughout the empire, or in particular 
districts, as he chooses. 

The tsar initiates the law and makes the first draft, or the 
measure may originate in the Senate, the Holy Synod, or the 
administrative departments. In the latter case, after the 
discussion it is submitted to the tsar, whose decision is final. 
In the administration of laws the tsar's will is published in 
an order, or ukase, and when he supplements or interprets a 
law, he does so by verbal instruction to certain high officials 
in a notified ukase, but the latter can only be given to those 
who have access to the presence of the tsar, and these notified 
ukases cannot be so construed as to alter any law that has 
been signed by the tsar himself previously, nor can they be 
used in cases involving the life, honor, or property of citizens, 
in regular taxation, or in change of rank among the nobility. 

The departments under the emperor are : 

The Council of the Empire ; which includes the grand- 
dukes, the ministers of state, the principal secretaries of state, 
the highest court officials, about twenty high military and 
naval officers, and several of the privy councilors — in all 
about six hundred and sixty men. It is their business to at- 
tend to matters of legislature, home affairs, worship, and 
finance. The first draft of laws are brought before this coun- 
cil and passed upon. They then go to the tsar for his final 
decision. But acts not involving anything more than ex- 
planation or interpretation of existing laws do not go to the 
tsar. When promulgating laws this Council of State has the 
right to issue admonitions concerning their observance. 

The Senate ; which is the judicial court of appeal, than 
which there is nothing higher except the tsar's mandate. It is 
also the chief legislative body in the empire. The Senate is 
composed of members who are attached to the departments or 
are appointed by consultation with the tsar. The minister of 
justice is the presiding officer, and the different departments, 
or committees, have charge of legislation, administration, and 
examination of accounts ; in matters concerning the peas- 
antry ; in civil and criminal affairs ; and other matters. The 



RUSSIA, 



311 



Senate also is the High Court of Cassation and has separate 
departments for civic, criminal, and disciplinary matters. The 
Senate makes all laws known to the people through an official 
paper, and the laws after going through the Holy Synod are 
sent to the proper local authorities. No minister of state, 
governor of a province, or local authority can put a law into 
force until it has gone through the Senate and been publicly 
announced, but then no one, either native or foreigner, is ex- 
empt from its decree, and ignorance cannot be pleaded as an 
excuse. Laws thus promulgated may be made ex post facto, 
but are not so necessarily unless so stated. Any judgment of 
the Senate sitting in the Court of Appeal is not taken as a 
precedent, nor is any particular decree of the tsar which con- 
cerns privileges to individuals or refers to particular parts of 
the empire. 

The chief metropolitan of Russia — the metropolitan of 
Novgorod, St. Petersburg, and Finland ; he is the head of the 
Holy Synod, which is composed of six regular members, five 
heads of administrative departments, and irregularly of 
thirty-one bishops and archbishops. The principal work of 
the Synod is the government of the Greek Orthodox Church, 
though its decrees require the signature of the tsar. 

The ministers ; who are heads of large administrative and 
somewhat legislative departments. These are the ministers of 
the imperial house, foreign affairs, war, finance, marine, in- 
terior and public worship, public instruction, domains, roads 
and works, and control. 

There are nine military divisions of the empire and as 
many military governors ; and there are sixty-two civil gov- 
ernors and thirteen military and civil governors in Siberia and 
Turkestan, three military governors of towns, six prefects of 
large cities, and twelve civil governors of the Caucasus. Under 
the ministry of the interior there are 625 local governments in 
as many districts, which cover the empire excepting Finland 
and Turkestan, whose government is carried on from the 
Senate and tsar direct. The board of control appoints a council 
for each district. The empire is also divided into communes, 
or mzrs, which select elders, or selectmen, to meet in open as- 
sembly. The mirs are united into cantons which also choose 
selectmen. The large districts also have elective assemblies. 



Holy 
Synod. 



Adminis- 
tration. 



Local gov- 
ernment. 



Judiciary. 



312 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

When a law is promulgated by the Senate, or any other 
authority, and reaches the government of the province, the 
highest authority summons tlie assemblies for consultation. 
If this body or the administrative authority finds anything 
in the ukase detrimental to the province, or to some other 
ukase, it may refer it back to the Senate, but if the tsar con- 
firms the ukase, it must be enforced. And it is the same with 
instructions from the departments. Decrees may be referred 
back by them to the Senate and thence to the tsar, but in 
each and every case the tsar is the final and absolute authority 
in legislative and executive functions. 

The Senate, including the tsar, as has been said, is the final 
court of appeal and High Court of Cassation. There are courts 
of the first instance under elected judges in the cantons, but 
their jurisdiction does not run beyond cases involving one hun- 
dred rubles. Superior judges form the next step, with juris- 
diction up to three hundred rubles. Appeals can be made to 
the judges appointed for an entire district, and from these 
the appeal goes to the Senate. Certain kinds of judicial busi- 
ness go to superior courts in the district with appeal to high 
district courts and thence to the Senate again. 

The religion is the Grseco-Russian Church, of which the Holy 
Synod is the head, but other creeds are allowed and they come 
under the care of the ministry of worship. 

Education is being curtailed gradually to avoid the introduc- 
tion of ''seditious " ideas, and the system in Russia generally 
is very bad. Not more than one in forty of the population at- 
tends school. There are eight universities and 12,000 students, 
and primary education is spread by means of a pro-gymnasia. 

The entire coast and border-line of Russia is extensively forti- 
Annyand fled and more complete defenses are being projected at present. 
The German, Black Sea, Caucasus, and Asiatic borders are 
strengthened with more or less completely fortified towns. 

According to the laws of 1874, 1876, and 1888, every man 
twenty-one years of age is liable to service. Of these about 260,- 
000 are each year taken into the regular army, and the remain- 
der, counting out men with families, clergymen, doctors, and 
school-teachers and men who are physically incapable, join the 
reserves, or the second reserves, called the " zapas." In 
European Russia the service is five years in the active army, 



RUSSIA. 313 

thirteen years in the reserves, and five years in the zapas. In 
the Asiatic provinces it is shorter, being seven years in the 
active service and six in the reserves, and in tlie Caucasus tlie 
terms are three years in the regular army and fifteen years in 
the reserves. The army on a peace footing consists of the fol- 
lowing divisions : 

European 781,518 

East Siberian 25,766 

West Siberian 11,356 

Turkestan 39,748 

Finland 10,284 

Total 868,672 

The war footing of the army for 1892 including all branches 

is estimated at 2,532,496 men. 

The navy consists of the following vessels : 

Battleships 17 

Port defense 25 

Cruisers 59 

Torpedo boats 59 

Total 160 

The navy numbers 25,964 sailors, maintained as in the arm3\ 

The sailors must serve seven years in active service and three 

in the reserves. 

The grand-duchy of Finland was ceded to Russia by the Finland, 
treaty of Friedrichshamn on the 17th of September, 1809. The 
duchy while under Swedish rule had possessed a constitution 
founded in 1772, which was to a certain extent guaranteed b^^ 
Alexander in 1810, and this guarantee has been continued by 
the tsars since then. Helsingfors is the capital with a popula- 
tion of 68,402. 

The government is carried on by a Landtag, reopened in 
1867, of four divisions, or estates : the nobles, the clergy, the 
burghers, and the peasants. They are called together by the 
tsar, in his capacity of Grand-duke of Finland. He proposes 
measures which they discuss, and he has the right of veto. 
The Parliament is convoked for four months and has been reg- 
ularly called together every three or four years since 1861. The 
members are free from arrest except on the application of the 
order, or class, to which each belongs. The members who 
represent each order are elected or appointed according to dif- 
ferent methods. The nobles belong by right of birth ; the 
-clergy are returned twelve from Abo, ten from Borga, six from 



314 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

Kuopio, and one each from the Helsingfors University and the 
teachers of the schools ; the burghers are elected by a some- 
what limited suffrage from each of the towns, each town re- 
turning one burgher in any case ; each of the fifty-nine judi- 
cial districts elects one representative from the peasantry. 

The tsar nominates the presiding officers, and is himself the 
head of the duchy in the executive, judicial, and legislative 
departments of the government. Finally, the " Committee for 
the Affairs of Finland" at St. Petersburg has general charge 
of the government of the duchy in its relation to the empire. 
This committee consists of the secretary for Finland, ap- 
pointed by the tsar, and four other members also appointed by 
him. The Upper House, or Senate, is a body sitting at Hel- 
singfors under the presidency of the governor-general, and it 
is composed of members appointed by the tsar. 

In its details the constitution is similar to that of Sweden, 
^ents*. ^^^ ^^® powers of the government are limited to local affairs, 
and in many instances even these powers are curtailed. 

The troubles growing out of the desire of Russia to increase 
her territory in the south led to negotiations and communica- 
tions from 1871 up to 1876, when the rebellion in Bulgaria broke 
out and served as an indirect cause of the conference of the 
powers at Constantinople. Turkey refused the conditions of 
the conference, and Russia, ostensibly to protect Christians in 
the south, declared war in 1877, which ended in the fall of 
Plevna in 1877 and the peace of San Stefano in 1878.* The 
conference at Berlin in the same year is the basis of the present 
situation of the relations between Russia and the Porte. 

Toward 1880 an important element in the political life of 
Russia began to grow in prominence. This was the party of 
nihilists. Nihilism is said to have been founded by Michael 
Bakaniu, who lived from 1814 to 1876. The nihilists believe 
that the proper reconstruction of human existence is to be 
accomplished by first destroying everything that exists. 
There is no God, no religion, no government, no right. This 
sect has confined itself largely to Russia and is popularly 
known only as a sect which strives to overthrow the Russian 
form of government. It gained its greatest strength in 1877- 
80. Many attempts on the life of the head of the police were 

* See Turkey. 



RUSSIA. 315 

made. In 1876 Vera Sassulitch tried to kill General Trepoff, 
chief of secret police. In 1878 Mezentzoff, the successor of 
Trepoff, was killed. In 1879 Prince Krapotchkiss was also 
killed and Alexander II. narrowly escaped being blown up. 
In 1881, March 13, the tsar was finally killed by a bomb, after 
having once escaped a similar explosion. 

Of late the nihilist propaganda have intimated certain dis- 
tinct demands, such as representative government ; legislative 
chambers with members chosen by universal suffrage ; home 
rule in the provinces ; possession of the land by the people ; 
disbanding of the army ; free press, free speech, and the right 
to form labor and industrial unions, etc. This is not nihilism, 
because it stands for something, and nihilism signifies " noth- 
ing." But it is probable that nihilists are misnamed thus far. 

Alexander was succeeded by his son, who took the title of 
Alexander III., but the latter for fear of the nihilists was not 
crowned until 1883. An attempt was made by the liberal min- 
isters of his father to persuade him to adopt modern views 
and forms of government, but after long discussion Alexander 
issued a proclamation announcing his inalienable and irrespon- 
sible autocracy. Thereupon he received hosts of pronuncia- 
mentos from the nihilists. But the extraordinary measures of 
the police and military prevented any attempts on the tsar's 
life from proving successful, and Alexander died a natural 
death in 1894. He was succeeded by his son, who has taken 
the title of Alexander IV. 

Trouble with England in arranging the Afghan frontier in 
1880-85, resulted finally in a general settlement of boundary. 
In 1887 it was settled at the southern line of Bosaga, between 
Afghanistan and Bokhara, England conceding certain dis- 
tricts between the Murghab and Kushk Rivers. 

It is as yet uncertain what the new tsar's policy will be. The 
Franco-Russian Alliance has so far kept the balance of power 
in Europe against the Triple Alliance, and it is probable that 
Alexander IV. will try to maintain it in the attempt to make 
himself, like his father, the "arbiter of Europe." 



SALVADOR.* 

President, . . . Gexerai. Carlos Ezeta. 

Salvador, or San Salvador, is one of the five Central 
American states. It is bounded on the north by Honduras 
and Guateiuahv, on the east by Honduras and the Gulf of 
Fonseoa, on the south by the Pacific Ocean, and on the west 
by Guatemala. It is an independent republic divided into 
fourteen departments under a president and a Congress gov- 
erned by a constitutou, and has a total area of 7.2i!o square 
miles and a population of Gol.lSO. 

Salvador was part of a larger territory composed of Sal- 
vador, Hondun\s, and Nicaragua until IS.^7, when it dissolved 
its connection by one of the many i-evolutions that are con- 
stantly occurring in Central America, Since then it has main- 
tained its independence. 

Originally Salvador was a portion of the Spanish province 
of Guatemala, but in ISill it revolted with the rest of the 
province and formed one of the five independent states which 
joined one another in a kind of consolidated Union of Central 
American states. Troubles arose at once, however; as to the 
supremacy in the confederation, and it was found, as in later 
years, that the jealousies of the diflerent states would not per- 
mit of a lasting and peaceful union. Guatemala tried to ol>- 
tain the upper hand, and hostilities were almost continuous 
until in 1839 the union was dissolved and Salvador became an 
independent principality. 

From this date down to the present the history of Salvador 

sketch. is scarcely more than a bewildering mass of revolutions, pro- 

nunciamentos, and changes of government. It is important to 

notice that the two greatest causes of hostility were (1) the 

influence of the Catholics, the ambitions of the bishops to 



* See map under Honduras. 

316 



SALVADOR. 317 

» 

control temporal affairs, and (2) the constant jealousies of the 
five small states. 

Bishop Viteri, the Catholic head of Salvador, did what he 
could from 1842 to 1847 to destroy the peace of the country. He 
combined with Malespin, a deposed president of the republic, 
to overthrow the administration that was hostile to Catholics, 
and he caused a continual state of disruption until 1847, when 
he was forced to retire to Nicaragua. Vasconcelos, made presi- 
dent in 1848, did much to quiet the country, but it was only a 
rest before another struggle. A dispute over his refusal to 
recognize a newly installed government in Guatemala resulted 
in a Guatemalan invasion, which was hardly settled in 1849 
when a serious trouble arose with England over alleged insults 
to the British flag. This was followed by a blockade. 

By 1856 Salvador had declared itself an independent nation 
under the nanae of the Republic of Salvador. But that had 
been scarcely accomplished when Campos and Duenas, presi- 
dent and vice-president of the republic, were obliged to set out 
to assist in suppressing Walker's Rebellion in the north. This 
left a loophole for Barrios, who commanded the army, to create 
a popular uprising, depose Campos, and offer Duenas the presi- 
dency. The latter refused to accept the office, and in 1858 Bar- 
rios by a coup d'etat gained control of the country and made 
himself the president. He was finally overpowered, captured, 
and shot by Duenas in July, 1865, the latter by a counter-revo- 
lution having gained a large following and secured the- presi- 
dency. In 1870 political clouds again drew across the sky, and 
hostilities recommenced on a charge made by Honduras that 
the government of Salvador had harbored its refugees. Out of 
this simple matter, together with the immediate alliance of all 
parties in Salvador hostile to Duenas, grew the fighting of 
1870-72. Duenas was deposed, brought to trial, and finally 
acquitted. 

In 1871 a constituent assembly met and chose Gonzalez presi- 
dent. During the latter's term and that of Zaldivar, his suc- 
cessor, which lasted until 1885, there were comparatively long 
intervals of peace. The country began to show signs of prog- 
ress, but in 1885 Barrios, president of Guatemala, reintroduced 
the plan for a Central American union and attempted to force 
it upon Salvador. The whole country was stirred up again, 



318 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



Constitu- 
tion. 



Legisla- 
ture. 



Executive. 



Judiciary. 



with the result that Barrios was crushed and with him his 
plan of union. Barillas, his successor, tried again .in 1887 to 
accomplish the union, and a meeting of plenipotentiaries took 
place at Panama without material results. 

Menendez, successor of Zaldivar as president of Salvador, 
opposed the union in 1885, but in 1888 he was persuaded 
to join Honduras and Guatemala in another attempt at 
forcing a union. Hostilities resulted again, and on June 22, 
1890, Menendez was murdered at a banquet by some of the 
Independents of the capital. Carlos Ezeta, general of the 
troops and leader of the party opposing the union, at once as- 
sumed control of the state, and a general uprising followed. 
The city of San Salvador fell into the hands of Eivas, but was 
recaptured by Ezeta's brother in the same year, and, peace 
being finally restored, General Carlos Ezeta was chosen presi- 
dent. He was inaugurated in 1891 and still remains at the 
head of the government. 

The Salvadorian constitution has been so often changed 
that it is impossible to follow it here. It was adopted in 
March, 1864, but amended in 1880, 1883, and again in 1886. It 
is based, as are all the other republican constitutions of Central 
America, on that of the United States. The president is the 
executive officer, aided in his work by a Congress of two 
houses. He has the prerogatives of the executive, of declaring 
war or peace subject to the vote of Congress, of vetoing bills 
passed by both Houses, of signing and executing all acts, etc. 
The whole power has, however, often been in his hands and 
he then acts as dictator. 

The legislature consists of a Senate with members elected to 
serve six years. There are twelve members in all. The House 
of Representatives is composed of seventy members, one being 
elected nominally to every 15,000 inhabitants, and they serve 
four years. 

The president is elected for a term of four years by almost 
universal suffrage. In case of a tie the Congress decides 
among the three candidates having the largest number of 
votes. Three senators are appointed to fill the president's 
place in case of a vacancy, in the order elected. The president 
is ineligible for a second term of office. 

There is a Supreme Court composed of eleven judges, who 



SALVADOR. 319 

constitute a court of appeals, and there are besides several dis- 
trict courts among the departments. 

There are four ministers appointed by the president to assist Adminis- 
him. They are responsible to him, and hold portfolios as fol- tration. 
lows : (1) for foreign relations, justice, and religion ; (2) war 
and finance ; (3) interior ; (4) public instruction. 

The local administration is carried on in the fourteen depart- 
ments by governors. The departments are divided into twenty- 
nine districts and 228 townships, having a species of communal 
government. 

The army consists of 2,500 regular troops and a militia of 
12,000. 



SANTO DOMINGO.* 



President, . . - . UiiYSSES Heureaux. 

Santo Domingo occupies the eastern part of the island of 
Haiti. It is an independent republic divided into eleven 
provinces, and is governed by a president and a constitution. 
Its area is more than two thirds that of the entire island. The 
capital is Santo Domingo, population 25,000. 

Santo Domingo is divided into eleven districts : Santo Do- 
mingo, Santiago, La Vega, Espaillat, Azua, El Seybo, Puerto 
Plata, Barabona, Samana, Monte Cristo, and Macoris. The 
total area is 18,045 square miles and the population in 1888 was 
416,871. Each department is regularly divided into cantons, 
communes, and sections, with a system of government that is 
partially local, but that is, in all affairs that concern the whole 
territory, highly centralized. 

Santo Domingo was a portion of the republic of Haiti until 
Historical jj^ 1344 ^ creole, named Jiminez, brought about a revolution 
and declared the independence of the eastern part of the 
island. A constitutional assembly was convened and a con- 
stitution adopted when the success of the revolution was as- 
sured. It was formed on that of the United States indirectly, 
and directly from that of Venezuela. Don Pedro Santana was 
the first president. 

The subsequent history has been a succession of almost con- 
tinuous civil war, interspersed with battles between the gov- 
ernment of Haiti and that of Santo Domingo. The latter 
maintained its independence for the most part. Santana 
saved the state several times from the forces of Soulouque, the 
commander of the Haitian army, until in 1859 Soulouque fell, 
when a commercial treaty was made with his successor and 
peace for the time restored. 

Spain tried in 1861 to regain possession of the republic as a 

♦For map see Haiti. 

320 



SANTO DOMINGO. 321 

province, but she gave up the attempt in two years. Then fol- 
lowed years of war with Haiti again. From 1873 until 1879 
Gonzalez ruled the country and had to contend with internal 
revolutions under Baez and Cabral, his predecessors, as well 
as periodic attacks from without. The terms of Guillerme 
(1879), Merino (1881), Heureaux (1884), and Bellini (1885), were 
somewhat less disturbed by hostilities, but it is only since the 
last election of Heureaux in 1885 that Santo Domingo has made 
any great advance in commercial growth. Treaties of com- 
merce and friendship have since then been made with the 
United States, Germany, and France ; education is now being 
fostered, and some encouragement given to the arts and sci- 
ences. 

The constitution was first proclaimed in 1844. It was changed constitu- 
in 1865 after the expulsion of the Spanish troops, and still again *i°^- 
in 1879, 1880, 1881, and 1887. 

The Congress consists of a body of twenty-two members, two - . 
from each state or district, and they with six ministers consti- ture. 
tute the government of the country. The ministers are re- 
sponsible to the Congress for advice given the president. 
Foreigners holding real estate are eligible to hold office under 
the government. 

The president is elected for a four years' term. He appoints Executive, 
the governors of the district, who in turn appoint the heads of 
the different cantons. 

There is a Supreme Court at Santo Domingo consisting of a 
president and four judges, all appointed by Congress, and an 
attorney-general appointed by the president. Under this court 
there are eleven district courts and smaller canton courts with 
their judges. 

There is a small force of soldiery supplemented by a reserve judiciary, 
force of several thousand, but the number is too uncertain to 
be estimated. 

The Roman Catholic religion is recognized by the consti tu- Army and 
tion. There are about 300 primary schools with compulsory Navy, 
attendance and a few normal and technical schools. 



King, 



SERVIA. 

Alexander 1. 



RULERS SINCE 1800. 

Turkish government 1829 

Prince Milos 1829-1839 

Prince Milan 1839-1840 

Prince Michael 1840-1842 

Prince Alexander 1842-1859 

Prince Milos 1859-1860 

Prince Michael 1860-1868 

Prince Milan 1868-1882 

King Milan 1882-1889 

King Alexander 1 1889- 

MINISTRY. 

Minister of Interior, president N. Christitch 

Minister of Public Instruction and Worship L, Kleritch 

Minister of Foreign Affairs M. Bogitschevitch 

Minister of War M. Pavlovitch 

Minister of Finances V. J. Petrovitch 

Minister of Public Works S. Zdrawkovitch 

Minister of Justice ..M. Kr. Georgievitch 

Minister of Agriculture S. Losavitch 

TABLE OF STATISTICS. 



Province. 



Belgrade City. 

Valjevo 

Vranje 

Kragouyevatz 

Graina 

Krouchevatz .. 

Pirot 

Podriuje 

Pozarevatz 

Roudink 

Toplitza 

Oujitze 

Tzrnareka 

Morava 

Podunavlje 

Tomik 

Nisch City 

Total 



19,050 



Area. 


Population. 


4 


56,375 


1,121 


116,785 


1,620 


154,142 


927 


144,612 


1,257 


92,512 


1,256 


155,418 


1,214 


122,909 


1,300 


180,584 


1,404 


210,345 


2,056 


157,116 


1,400 


126,707 


1,676 


143,071 


555 


70,839 


1,200 


166,527 


1,246 


214,165 


810 


94,991 


4 


21,396 



2,228,494 



822 



SERVIA. 



«) 









^fechabat: 

, — ,3,._^_ >Xo8nitzaB£^*^'\, 

ZvornilD, ^ JR^,^ 

iSTaljewo ^°&e 



S E 

/o\ Uslutzf 
"^Vi^chegrali 



^ BirsaPalaWa 
-- ------ 



R 

yJapofli 



The territory occupied by the kingdom of Servia lies in the 
northern part of the Balkan Peninsula. It is bounded on the 
north by the Austro-Hungarian Empire, on the east by Rou- 
melia, Roumania, and Bulgaria, on the south by Turkey, and 
on the west by Bosnia and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. 
The government is that of a constitutional monarchy. Bel- 
grade is the capital with a population of 54,458. 

Until 1804 the country now occupied by the kingdom of 
Servia was a part of 
the Ottoman Em- 
pire. The rule of the 
Turks was so atro- 
cious that revo- 
lutions were con- 
stantly breaking out. 
In 1804 the Servians 
again arose in re- 
bellion under George 
Petrovitchjsurnamed 
*'the Black," and 
within a compara- 
tively short time the 
insurgents had pos- 
session of the coun- 
try. 

By 1813, however, 
Turkish forces had invaded the territory and Petrovitch was 
obliged to retire. He returned again in 1817 and drove the 
Turks southward. Dissolution in the Servian ranks soon 
overthrew Petrovitch, however, and brought another leader, 
Milos Obrenovitch, to the head of affairs. 

Servia was now practically independent, but the country 
was in a wretched condition. There was little or no industry, 

323 



ina\ ^^% ' "^^s^SS 



/< ]sn^c^;!sf^>Iitrovitzat \ 



IKissa'vo 
^^^^ , > 



IRadomiDg 



T; 



:^Bmi^^ao^ 



'Islib 



History 
since 1800. 



324 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

and under the rule of the Turks the treasury had been de- 
pleted. It was not until 1830, therefore, that Milos accom- 
plished the absolute independence of the state. In that year he 
was elected prince, and the Turkish government finally ac- 
knowledged Servian independence and the right of hereditary 
succession. The Porte, however, still maintained garrisons in 
different parts of the Servian territory. 

It was impossible to expect that a people which had been so 
long under Turkish rule could settle down at once to a stable 
government. In 1838 an insurrection arose against Milos' 
rule. In the next year he was compelled to resign in favor of 
his son, Prince Milan. The son came into office professing 
more liberal ideas, but he was physically incapable of carrying 
on the government and resigned in 1840 in favor of his brother, 
Prince Michael. 

Within two years a strong opposition to the Obrenovitch 
family overthrew Michael, and the son of Petrovitch "the 
Black," Prince Alexander, was elected in his place. His rule 
of seventeen years was in many respects a beneficial one, but 
the Servian people had not yet had their independence long 
enough to make their government firm. Alexander was 
overthrown and the aged Milos again became the ruling prince, 
followed in 1859 by his son Michael. During the reign of the 
latter the last of the Turkish garrisons evacuated the country 
and Servia made another step toward complete sovereignty. 
Michael was assassinated in 1868, and the final act that made 
Servia an independent kingdom was the crowning of his suc- 
cessor. Prince Milan, king of Servia in 1882. 

In 1869, at the time of the regency and after the assassination 
^°Son!^"' ^^ Prince Michael, an assembly of seventy elected members 
drew up a constitution which remained in force until, in 1888, 
King Milan, thinking to make his tottering rule more secure, 
introduced a more representative and radical constitution. 
This last stands as the constitution of Servia to-day. 

The legislative part of the government is vested in the king 
^tur?.^' ^^^ *^^ assemblies called the Skupshtina. The Great Skupsh- 
tina only meets on the king's decease or retirement to elect his 
successor, or for the settlement of such questions as are im- 
mediately connected with the throne or the revision of the 
constitution. Its members are elected by the citizens at large 



SERVIA. 



325 



who come under the qualifications of electorship. These are 
an annual payment of fifteen dinars, or francs, when the voter 
is between the ages of twenty-one and thirty, and thirty 
dinars when he is over thirty years. The functions of the 
Upper Chamber are not therefore strictly legislative. 

The national Skupshtina, or Lower House, meets regularly 
each year and has legislative powers. The suffrage law is the 
same as that for the election to the Great Skupshtina. Each 
town and canton returns one deputy in any case, and one for 
every three thousand taxpaying citizens. The king adds one 
deputy to the Lower House to every three elected by the con- 
stituencies, and the total number at present is 208. Candi- 
dates for the Chamber must pay a tax not less than about $5.20 
and they must have the qualifications of electors. The national 
Skupshtina has the sole charge of financial legislation and the 
general supervision in legislative matters. It can originate 
measures which must be signed by the king before becoming 
laws. Freedom of the press is inviolable. No capital punish- 
ment is allowed, nor any title of nobility. 

The king is the executive officer, but he has certain legis- 
lative powers also in conjunction with the Skupshtina. In 
the executive functions he is assisted by a council of seven 
ministers and a cabinet, or Council of State, composed of from 
eleven to fifteen members. The members of both bodies are 
appointed by the king but the ministers are responsible to the 
Skupshtina. The king has the usual powers of the executive 
in a limited monarchy. 

There is a Court of Appeal and Cassation and a Court of Com- 
merce in Servia, besides twenty-two courts of the first instance. 
The judges serving in the three higher courts are appointed by 
the king, but he cannot remove them. Trial by jury is in 
force in criminal cases and there is no capital punishment. 
These tribunals cannot interfere with legislation, but in their 
legitimate province they cannot be checked by the legislative 
houses. 

There are fifteen counties or departments, each having a local 
assembly empowered to legislate in local affairs. Within these 
departments are 1,270 municipal communes. 

The army is under the direct control of the king and the 
minister of war. It consists of three divisions always in readi- 



Executive. 



Judiciary. 



Army. 



326 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

ness for active service. The first class includes able-bodied 
men between the ages of twenty and twenty-eight, and with 
its reserve is 100,000 strong. The second class includes men be- 
tween twenty-eight and thirty-seven years of age, about 55,- 
000 ; and the third, which is only called out in case of war, is 
also 55,000 strong and composed of men from thirty-seven to 
fifty years of age. The total strength of the army is, therefore, 
210,000. 

There is no navy. 

The Greek Orthodox Church is the state church and is gov- 
erned by bishops under the supervision of the minister of edu- 
cation and public works. 

There is a military academy, a university, and 700 schools of 
diflerent descriptions. Thirty-four are supported by the state 
and the remainder, the elementary schools, are under the local 
government. 

The importance of Servia in political history is its position 
Contempo- ^^ the Eastern Question. It presents with the Turkish prov- 

^^^y ince of Bulgaria a barrier to Russia and Austria on their road 

events. ° 

to Constantinople. And the great object of these smaller states 
is to form a union, which, under one government, shall be 
strong enough to hold Austrian, Russian, and English in- 
fluence in check, and thus to maintain an even balance of 
power. Whoever gains control of Constantinople will en- 
danger the independence of these Balkan states. 

In 1884 it became evident that Bulgaria was trying to unite 
with Eastern Roumelia and form an independent state. This 
aroused the Servian government, which opposes the creation of 
another independent power among the Danube provinces, and 
the Servian army invaded Bulgaria in November, 1885, on the 
ground that the Berlin treaty of 1878 had been broken by the 
fact that Philippopolis, the capital of Eastern Roumelia, had 
arisen in rebellion with the avowed purpose of bringing about 
a union with Bulgaria. The defeat of the Servians ended the 
war, and peace was restored in March, 1886^ by the interference 
of the great powers. There were some slight changes made in 
the Servia-Bulgarian frontier. In the same year all the Balkan 
states were joined in a common cause against Russian inter- 
ference with Prince Alexander of Bulgaria. 

In 1887 the Ristitch ministry came into power. It repre- 



SERVIA. 327 

sented the party in favor of Russia and was supported by 
Queen Natalie, but could not muster a suflBcient majority to 
keep it long in power. The common people in Servia are Radi- 
cals, believing in the constitutional representative govern- 
ments of Europe. The middle and upper classes, on the other 
hand, are Conservatives. There was a party also favoring Aus- 
trian protection, whose leader, Garashani, was the leader of 
the ministry preceding that of Ristitch ; and, finally, there is 
still another party under the present minister, Ristitch, favor- 
ing Russian protection. 

In the midst of these party organizations the king found it 
impossible to control the election, as he had heretofore, and a 
Radical Skupshtinawas elected in 1888. This necessitated the 
resignation of Ristitch and the appointment of Gruitch, the 
Radical leader, much against the king's will. King Milan, 
however, vetoed all the bills passed by the new House, where- 
by he succeeded in making matters only worse. He then tried 
a Moderate-Conservative ministry under Christitch. 

It was during these political troubles, in April, 1888, that the 
king and queen were divorced, partly because of general in- 
compatibility and partly because of the queen's avowed sym- 
pathies with the Russian government. But it was a hard blow 
to the king's prestige, and, though he tried to regain his in- 
fluence by granting a more liberal constitution, by extending 
the franchise, and by giving the Skupshtina the initiative in 
legislative matters, he was compelled to abdicate in 1889 in 
favor of his son Alexander, who was still a minor. 

The disturbances caused bj'- the divorce of Queen Natalie in- 
creased in 1891. It had been stipulated that she might return 
three or four times in each year to Belgrade and be treated with 
royal honors. Otherwise she was to remain in exile. Her re- 
fusal to accept these stipulations turned the Ristitch and Gru- 
itch followers against her and ranged the Conservatives on her 
side. Riots occurred. Natalie returned to Belgrade and had 
to be forcibly carried out of the city on May 18, 1891, after a 
severe street fight. The enforced exile had, however, been 
recommended by the Skupshtina. 

Meantime, in February, the Gruitch ministry had given place 
to a moderate government under Pachich. The ex-king and 
ex-queen were for some time both out of the country, and as 



328 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

long as Milan remained away the Radicals maintained their 
control of the government, but the ex-king had a strong fol- 
lowing in the army and he was able to count on its support 
when the time for his return came. In January, 1893, a rec- 
onciliation between Milan and Natalie was brought about, and 
the country is now at peace on this point. 



SI AM. 



King, 



Chulalong Korn I. 



The kingdom of Siam lies at the southeastern extremity of 
Asia and runs down the Malay Peninsula to the Straits of Ma- 
lacca. It is bounded on the north by Burmah and Annam, on 
the east by Annam, the Gulf of Siam, and the China Sea, on 
the south by Cambodia and the Gulf of Siam, and on the west 
by the Straits Settlements and part of India. The govern- 
ment is that of an absolute but somewhat enlightened mon- 
archy. Bangkok is the capital. 

The kingdom of Siam is about 250,000 square miles in area, 
but the boundaries are so uncertain that it is impossible to give 
any accurate figures. The population is estimated at 6,000,000. 

After the Dutch and Portuguese sailors entered Siam from the 
Straits Settlements in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries 
they were followed by the English, and a small trade with the 
outer world was opened. The people of the country were 
peacefully inclined, until the East India Company interfered 
with the aflTairs of the English residents and then the natives 
were drawn into the contests that resulted. Treaties were 
made with the natives in 1822, 1826, and 1850 ; but the hostile 
feeling had become chronic, and it was impossible to insure 
safety to life and property, or to carry on trade. In 1856 Sir 
John Bowring negotiated a treaty that allows foreigners to own 
houses in Siam, carry on business there, and that insures a 
moderate security to private property. Export and import 
duties were arranged at the same time, and by other commer- 
cial agreements a good trade has been opened with the country 
and much benefit is being derived from it by the Siamese 
government. 

The Siamese have no constitution, strictly speaking, but a 
law of 1874 declares that the king has the executive power in 
conjunction with a Council of Ministers, or Senabodi. This 

329 



Historical 
sketch. 



Con- 
stitution. 



380 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

council is made up of the ministers of foreign affairs, war and 
marine, finance, home government, justice, agriculture, and 
the royal house. There is besides a Council of State composed 
of the ministers appointed by the king and an unequal num- 
ber of from ten to twenty members, also appointed by the 
king, with six princes of the blood royal. It is probable that 
a regular system of departments will soon be instituted. 

The kingdom is divided into departments, or districts, as 
'ernmSi7" fallows : under the minister of the north, 37 districts under 
Siamese governors, 87 districts under Laosian governors ; 
under the minister of the south, 19 districts under Siamese 
governors, 12 districts under Malay governors ; under the 
minister of foreign affairs, 12 districts under Siamese govern- 
ors ; total number of districts, 117. 

These provinces are governed in different ways, but they are 
all gradually coming under the general government, which is 
constantly becoming more centralized at the capital. All the 
local governors are nominated or appointed by the king, and 
yet in the midst of this federal government the old feudal sys- 
tem still stands, and the nobles, though owing allegiance to 
their king, have an almost absolute rule in their respective ter- 
ritories. But feudalism is gradually disappearing. 

Buddhism is the religion of the country and is fostered by 
the king. There is but little tolerance of other religions, 
though Christianity is reputed to be spreading a little. Owing 
to the study of Siamese young men in Europe the advance of 
education is discernible. On their return to Siam they do 
much to introduce European methods. 



SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC. 



DAMARA) 



\ Japo o 



LAND 1 '^__.TH?a^ls:^,_ 

Barmen/, '.q 



Jtlakabale 



-ej— 




y\ .■■■•■■ I . / •.■■:--r^ ° Yj.^.iH^r^-i^a'^ioi- 



President, - - - S. J. Paul KRtJGER. 

MINISTRY. 

Secretary of State Dr. W. J. Leyds. 

Secretary of Interior W. E. Bok. 

f General P. J. Joubert. 

Executive Council^ W. A. Walmaraus. 

i N. J. Imit. 

The South African Kepublic, or, as it was formerly and is 
still often called, Transvaal, is in the southeastern part of Af- 
rica on the Indian Ocean. It is bounded on the north and 
east by the Limpopo River, which divides it from Mashona- 
land and the Umzilas Kingdom, on the southeast and east by 
Zululand, Natal, and 
the Orange River 
Free State, and on 
the west by Bechua- 
naland. The govern- 
ment is similar to 
that of the Orange 
River Free State, a 
republic with a con- 
stitution and a more 
or less liberal govern- 
ment. Pretoria is the 
capital with a popu- 
lation of 5,000. 

The area of the 
South African Re- 
public has been in- 
creased during the 
last few years by the 
accession of the Zulu 
Republic and other adjacent territory. The republic is divided 
into seventeen districts for local government. The total area 

331 



^lahari Desert ^- :"::^ ^^ * 
NAMAQUA 





Cronstadt 

cTrange 

FREE STATf 



o Ookiep 
o SpringbokfonUin HoiTetowu 

"Mts. CAPE 






istaat Cf<ArJ^>^ 

.,..,....rM?»i^' 

'"^^t^.nrrt Pietermarita^ 

^-..<5P AS UTO _vy o 



s^r 



.Mit 



^^^^ 



'■"<' Desert^ 

^ Grahalnajown ^ 
%^6'ft^"izabeth„ 



332 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

is about 121,854 square miles. The population is largely na- 
tive, there being over 550,000 of these to about 120,000 whites. 
Historical ^^^ history of the South African Republic dates from. 
sketch. 1833-37, when large numbers of Boers, descendants of the 
Dutch, emigrated from Cape Colony to avoid English rule. 
There was little or no government until 1850. When in 1843 
Natal was brought under British control, the Boers, who had 
settled there, moved northward and westward into the terri- 
tory then called Transvaal. Attempts were made to establish 
some sort of government, but the disputes of Potgieter and 
Pretorious, two leaders of the Boers, delayed the development 
of the state. In 1850 Pretorius gained the ascendency and 
two years later with the help of the English government at 
the Sands Convention he succeeded in .making the beginnings 
of a constitution. 

Pretorius died in 1853 and his son became the first president 
of the Dutch African Republic, afterwards changed to the 
South African Republic. The government was simple, but 
not organized in its details, until in 1858 a Fundamental Law 
{Grondwet) was drawn up and adopted by a convention, and 
this forms the basis of the present constitution. 

In 1857-59 President Pretorius invaded the Orange River 
Free State and conquered it, but on his return to his own 
state he found everything in confusion. Discoveries in 1867 
of large deposits of gold first brought the republic before the 
civilized world, and the influx of Englishmen and people of 
other nationalities was enormous. 

With the growth of the population the questions of bound- 
aries and defense were brought home to the inhabitants and 
the government had a series of disputes with the mother-coun- 
tries of the surrounding colonies, which did not tend to increase 
the state's material prosperity. In 1870 the government fell into 
bad repute ; the finances were in a desperate condition, and in 
these straits the British government stepped in and took pos- 
session of the country, in April, 1876. Sir W. O. Lanyon was 
made administrator of the state, but in five years the Boers re- 
volted and kept up such a ferocious guerrilla warfare that the 
British government was withdrawn, leaving the state under 
the suzerainty of the queen with an English Resident at the 
capital. Finally, in 1884 the suzerainty was practically with- 



SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC. 



333 



drawn also, and the South African RepubUc was recognized as 
an independent sovereign state. Mr. Kriiger has been presi- 
dent since 1883 and he succeeded early in his administration 
in securing order within the country. 

The constitution that is in force in the republic to-day was 
first drawn up when the independence of the country was de- 
clared in 1849-50. It was further amended in 1858 and 
added to by the Grondwet then drawn up. There have been 
numerous amendments since then which have changed the 
constitution in its details somewhat, but in its main features 
it remains the same to-day. The government is a republic 
with two legislative houses, having general charge of legis- 
lation under the veto of the president. 

The legislative houses, or Volkrdde^ are each of twenty-four 
members, the only difference in the standing of the two being 
in the qualification for the candidacy. In the First Volkraad 
members must be native-born citizens, or burghers, of fourteen 
years' standing, whereas in the Second Chamber four years' 
residence is a sufficient qualification for candidacy. Candi- 
dates for membership to either House must be at least thirty 
years of age, must own land within the republic, and must be 
Protestants. The suffrage is somewhat limited and is differ- 
ent for the elections of members to the two Houses. Members 
of the First Volkraad are elected by native burghers, or burgh- 
ers of sixteen years' standing. Those of the Second Volkraad by 
burghers of two years' standing. The term in both Houses is 
four years, and half of each House retires every two years. 

The president is the executive officer and is elected for a five- 
year term by the burghers who are eligible for election to the 
First Volkraad. He has the usual prerogatives of the execu- 
tive, somewhat curtailed by the influence or authority of the 
British Resident. 

As in the Orange River Free State, the Dutch Reformed 
Church has by far the largest following, though there is no 
state church strictly speaking. Education is more advanced 
than is usual in such countries, there being a number of 
English schools in the state. There are, also, plans laid out 
for a university. 

The army consists of the able-bodied citizens, who are all 
liable to military service. 



Constitu- 
tion. 



Legis- 
lature. 



SPAIN. 



King, - - . Alfonso XIII. 

Regent, Maria Christina, mother of the king. 

RULERS SINCE 1800. 

Carlos IV 1788-1808 

Fernando VII 1808- 

Joseph Bonaparte 1808-1814 

Fernando VII (restored) -1833 

Isabella II.. 1833-1868 

Marshal Serrano (regent) 1868-1869 

King Amadeo 1869-1873 

Executive of the Cortes 1873- 

PresidentE. Figueras 1873- • 

President P. Margal I 1874- 

President N. Salmeron 1873-1874 

President E. Castelar 1874-1875 

King Alfonso XII 1875-1886 

King Alfonso XIII 1886- 

MINISTRY. 

President of the Council M. Sagasta 

Minister of Foreign Affairs ....S. Moret 

Minister of Finance A. Salvador 

Minister of Interior A. Aguilera 

Minister of Justice R. Capdepon 

Minister of Instruction, Commerce, and Agriculture Groizard 

Minister of War GeneralJ. L. Dominguez 

Minister of Marine Admiral M. Pasquin 

Minister of the Colonies Becerra 

TABLE OF STATISTICS. 



Departments. 



New Castile— Madrid, Guadala- 
jara, Toledo, Cuenca, Ciudad-Real 

Old Castile — Burgos. Logrono, 
Santander, Oviedo, Soria, Segovia, 
Avila, Leon, Palencia, Valladolid, 
Salamanca, Zamora 

Galicia — Coruiia, Lugo, Orense, 
Pontevedra 

Estremadura — Badajoz, Caceres... 

Andalusia— Seville, Huelva,Cadiz, 
Jaen, Cordoba 

Granada — Granada, A 1 m e r i a , 
Malaga 

Valencia — Valencia, Alicante, 
Castellon-de-la-Plana, M u r c i a , 
Albacete 

Catalonia — Barcelona, Tarragona, 
Lerida, Gerona 

Aragon — Huesca, Teruel, Zaragoza 

Navarra 

GuiPUzcoA — Alava, Biscay, Gui- 
puzcoa , 

Balearic Islands and the Ca- 
nary Islands .". 



Total. 



Area. 



28,018 



44,741 

11,344 
16,700 

22,600 

11,063 

19,346 

12,483 

17,976 

6,046 

2,782 

4,668 

197,767 



Population. 



1,778,475 



3,279,950 

1,894,558 
821,301 

2,088,088 

1,344,067 

2,180,003 

1,843,549 
912,197 
304,122 

510,419 

604,218 

17,660,947 



334 



SPAIN. 



Spain occupies nearly the whole of the southwestern penin- 
sula of Europe. It is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean and 
France on the north, by the Mediterranean on the east, the 
Mediterranean, Gibraltar, and the Atlantic Ocean on the 
south, and by Portugal on the west. The government is that 
of a constitutional monarchy. Madrid is the capital with a 
population of 472,228. 

In 1812, thanks to the tenacity of the Spanish soldiers, 
the help of the English, and the existence of the Russian 
war. Napoleon was compelled to give up his idea of intro- 
ducing the Napoleonic dynasty in Spain. After the success 
of the Spanish forces had been assured, a provisional junta 
drew up a constitution, which was adopted by the Cortes 
in the same year, and this later became the basis of the consti- 
tution in Italy. In 
1814 Ferdinand VII. 
returned from his 
French captivity and 
promised to recognize 
the constitution, this 
being made a prelimi- 
nary to his return to 
power. On the .night 
of May 10, however, 
the king undertook a 
coup cf €tat. He is- 
sued a proclamation 
recalling the consti- 



'Bordeaus 




tution and summoned a new Cortes under the old system. At 
first he promised amnesty to all Spaniards, but as soon as the 
power was well in his hands arrests were made on all sides. 
The Catholic priests demanded severe measures and urged the 
renewal of the Inquisition, and the people, always in favor of 

335 



History 
since i8oo. 



336 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

a new government of whatever kind, hailed the entrance of 
the king into Madrid. The press was at once put under strict 
censorship. 

The advisers of the king formed what was termed the 
** Camarilla," a cabinet made up of servile followers and women 
of the court, and it became the work of the freemasons, who 
represented the people's hope of freedom and constitutional 
government, to oust this " Camarilla." Revolutions broke out 
constantly from 1814 to 1820. Finally, in the early part of Jan- 
uary, 1820, an uprising at Cadiz was seconded by the invasion 
of one of Spain's famous generals, Mina, with an organized 
force from France. He came southward conquering the forces 
sent against him, and was received by the constitutional partj'' 
everywhere until he gained control of the government and 
compelled the king to sign a constitution. The " Camarilla" 
was abolished and one of the first acts of the new government 
was to confiscate the lands of the Roman Catholic Church. 
This was Ferdinand's loophole. The pope immediately es- 
poused his cause in order to save the church lands, and thus, 
seconded by the papacy, Ferdinand applied to the Holy Alli- 
ance for assistance in putting down the revolutionary spirit in 
Spain as well as elsewhere in Europe. 

The matter came up before the Congress of Verona in 1822 
and it was decided that France, in the name of the Holy Alli- 
ance, should send an army to Ferdinand's assistance. Accord- 
ingly in April, 1828, the Due d' Angoul6me with 95,000 men in- 
vaded the northern provinces of Spain. Aragon fell into the 
hands of the French and the army was soon in Madrid, where 
a regency was established until such time as the king, who had 
been forced to go with the Cortes to Cadiz, should be set free 
and reinstated in power. Cadiz surrendered on the first of Oc- 
tober and Spain was again in Bourbon hands. Ferdinand im- 
mediately began to enforce stringent measures. Men were put 
to death on all sides and all the decrees of the constitutional 
party were annulled. The vengeance was carried to such an 
extent that even the French general objected. 

Toward 1829 it became evident that if the king died child- 
less, Don Carlos, his brother, would succeed him, and therefore 
the Jesuit orders and believers in the Inquisition threw their 
influence on his side. But in October, 1830, a daughter was 



SPAIN. 337 

born to Ferdinand by his fourth wife and by a decree called the 
Pragmatic Sanction he annulled the Salic Law, thereby making 
it possible for a woman to inherit the crown of Spain. The 
infant Isabella became the heir-apparent, therefore, and Don 
Carlos and the * ' Apostolics " were deprived of their prospects 
of governing Spain. It was out of this change in the succes- 
sion that many of the wars of this century grew. Maria 
Christina became the regent during the minority of Isabella, 
and the Carlists and Christinos became the two political fac- 
tions of the country. 

Ferdinand VII. died on the 29th of September, 1833, and 
Carlos was declared king by the Carlists. To maintain her con- 
trol of the government Maria Christina was forced to throw in 
her lot with the Liberals and the Constitutionalists. A quad- 
ruple alliance was formed between Christina, Portugal — where 
the Carlists had joined with Miguel — England, and France, 
and eventually in 1839 the Carlists were dispersed and Don 
Carlos himself forced to fly from Spain. At first, in 1835, it 
seemed as if under the able leadership of General Zumalacar- 
reguy the Carlist cause would win the day, but later under 
General Espartero the Christinos totally defeated them. 

The Legitimists had no sooner gained control of the govern- 
ment than they divided among themselves. The Moderados, 
or Liberals, had never been in sympathy with the Christinos, 
and when the latter gradually enforced severe measures against 
the Constitutionalists revolts broke out in Spain. 

Espartero was the great man of the hour ; no one else could 
quell the revolt and the queen regent was again forced to turn 
to him. He became in 1840 the head of a Progressist ministry 
where Christina found small place for herself and her followers. 
She led a scandalous life, till in 1844 she was forced to abdicate 
and leave the country. Espartero was in control of the govern- 
ment from 1841, but no man could remain long at the head of 
affairs in such turbulent times, and he fell in 1843. Isabella, 
then at the age of thirteen, was thereupon declared of age and 
crowned queen. The Duke of Valencia became minister-presi- 
dent, and with the recall of Christina the tenets of absolutism 
again crept into the government. Espartero had reorganized 
the Cortes and set up the constitution again. It was now 
abolished ; the press was restricted and the National Guard 



\ 



338 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

disbanded. Spain was again under an unfortunate govern- 
ment that lasted for several years. The young queen in 1846 
married Francis of Assis, and finding little to please her in 
him she turned to the men of her court, and the court and 
country degenerated with her. Gradually the army gained 
complete control of the people and the monastic orders the con- 
trol of the government. Monks and priests filled the political 
offices. The Liberals everywhere grew more and more ex- 
asperated with the state of affairs, and the queen by her dis- 
reputable private life caused the whole court to be held in con- 
tempt. The public finances fell into worse condition than 
ever, but with the military always at hand the Duke of Val- 
encia held himself at the head of the state until his death in 
April, 1868. 

The country was then ripe for the fiercest kind of rebellion. 
Gonzalez, Valencia's successor, gave the opportunity for out- 
break by setting the army against him. In September, 1868, 
an insurrection broke out. The celebrated General Prim and 
General Serrano came back from exile and within a few days 
all Spain had declared for the revolution. 

Isabella, who was on her way northward to meet Napoleon 
III., was obliged, on the last day of September, to hasten her 
journey and fly to France. Madrid opened its gates to the vic- 
torious generals and the government was intrusted to them. 
Serrano became minister-president, Prim, minister of war, and 
Topeti, minister of the navy. The Jesuits were driven out of 
power and Protestants appeared in their places. Finally 
a new constitution drawn up in 1867 was promulgated. 

Troubles, however, soon arose again ; the Carlists began to 
gather ; Cuba revolted, and the Spanish people were still in 
such a state that no government could stand long. The men 
at the head of affairs tried to find a ruler for Spain. Espartero 
refused ; then Louis of Portugal and his father ; next Aosta, 
son of Victor Emmanuel, and then Prince Thomas of Genoa. 
Finally the crown was accepted and then rejected by Prince 
Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, the last named being 
the immediate cause of the Franco-Prussian War.* 

While France and Germany were preparing for war and im- 
mediately upon the resignation of Prince Leopold, on account 

* See Germany. 



SPAIN. 339 

of diplomatic negotiations, Marshal Prim obtained the consent 
of Duke Amadeo of Aosta to accept the crown of Spain. But 
again the impossibility of bringing about any unity among the 
Spanish parties was proved. The new king had a hopeless 
task. Ministers followed each other with bewildering rapidity, 
and in three years Amadeo decided that he preferred his duchy 
in Italy to the crown of Spain. 

His resignation on the 11th of February, 1873, no sooner be- 
came known than the Cortes declared for a republic. Figueras 
was chosen president of the executive and a plan of a federative 
republican government like that of the United States was de- 
termined upon. Democratic principles were promulgated and 
a new Cortes supported them, but nothing like stability could 
be put into the government. 

Margall, Salmeron, and Castelar were presidents of Spain in 
succession within one year, and by vigorous measures the lat- 
ter succeeded in putting down a revolt led by the Carlists, but 
the very vigor of his methods set the republicans against him. 

In 1875 General Serrano set himself up as dictator. Another 
Carlist war began which drew all Germany into the contest, on 
account of the murder by the Carlists of a Prussian named 
Schmidt. Bismarck brought his influence to bear, and Serrano's 
government was recognized by the powers excepting Russia. 
But civil war again broke out in November and December. 

In the midst of this the eighteen-year-old son of Isabella, 
who had been with his mother in Paris, was proclaimed king, 
on the 29th of December, 1874. Spain being ready for another 
change, the young man was crowned king in January, 1875. 
He spent the first year of his reign in quieting the country and 
in 1876 work on the formation of the present constitution was 
begun. 

Spain has had several constitutions, all of which have had 
their influence over the formation of the one in force at pres- Constitu- 
ent, which was promulgated June 30, 1876. It was prepared by 
the government and adopted after discussion by an assembly 
chosen under " limited suffrage " of the people a year after the 
accession of Alfonso XII. The rights of individuals and 
sacredness of private property are insured and the right of as- 
sembly and free speech are guaranteed to all. The kingdom is 
made a constitutional monarchy. 



340 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

The legislative portion of the government is, by an article of 

Lcfiris- 

lature. the Constitution, put into the hands of a Cortes, or parliament 
" with the king." The Cortes consists of a Senate and a Con- 
gress, two Houses which must meet simultaneously and an- 
nually, but which cannot sit together. The king, the heir- 
apparent, and the regent are obliged to swear fealty to the con- 
stitution, and the king appoints the president and the vice- 
president of the Senate. Ministers can only be impeached by 
the Congress and only tried by the Senate, and the persons of 
members are sacred during term of office. 

The Senate is composed of 360 members. Of these 180 are 
senators by right of office or birth, and almost 100 more are ap- 
pointed by the crown. Grandees of Spain, sons of the king, 
generals of the army, and admirals in the navy, presidents of 
the naval, military, supreme, and exchequer courts, etc., and 
the patriarch of the Indias come within the first category. The 
appointments of the king must be made from persons occupy- 
ing certain ranks. 

Finally, there is a third category composed of another 180 
members who are elected by the universities, economical 
societies, communal and provincial governments, and acade- 
mies, churches, etc. For this second half of the Senate the 
term is ten years, half that number being elected every five 
years. Candidates must be thirty-five years old and in full pos- 
session of all their civil rights. The constitution in its amend- 
ments of 1877 and 1878 has been brought to this final state. 

The Congress is composed of 431 members since the royal 
decree of 1878. In that year Cuba received the right to send 
one deputy for every 40,000 inhabitants, slaves not being 
enumerated therein. By the electoral law of 1890 the suffrage 
is open to male Spaniards twenty-five years of age, who have 
been citizens of one municipality two years and are in the 
possession of all civil rights. They must also pay a |5 land, or 
|10 income tax. The elections for Congress occur simultane- 
ously with those for the Senate, 88 of the seats being filled by 
26 districts voting according to the French scrutin de liste* the 
rest being returned from communal districts. The Congress 
elects its own officers. It addition to Cuba, Puerto Rico sends 
representatives to the Congress. 

* See under France. 



SPAIN. 



341 



The king, besides having legislative powers, is the executive 
officer of the kingdom. He has the power to convoke and 
dissolve both Chambers, but another election must occur 
within three months. The king has the usual prerogatives 
of the executive. He commands the army and navy ; he ac- 
credits and receives foreign emissaries and members of the 
diplomatic corps and has the appointment of a large number 
of civil, military, and judicial officers. But he is bound to 
observe the advice and consent of the Cortes in naatters of 
peace and war, change of territory, and signing of treaties. 
He can, in company with either House, initiate measures. 
His person is inviolable and the ministers are responsible to 
the Cortes, not to him. All bills require the counter signature 
of a minister. The king is assisted in the executive and ad- 
ministrative portions of the governnaent by a council of nine 
ministers. 

The constitution provides for a system of courts uniform 
throughout the kingdom, but up to the present this has not 
been carried out, and the old system continues. There are 
different courts in different parts of the country, and magis- 
trates of communes are still final in minor cases. 

The Roman Catholic Church is recognized by the constitu- 
tion as the state church, and though Protestants are allowed 
the enjoyment of their faith, it must be carried on privately, 
no public announcement being allowed. Education is back- 
ward, seventy-five per cent of the inhabitants not being able 
to read or write. But in 1881 a board of education with a di- 
rector of education was appointed, and attempts are being 
made to introduce popular primary education. 

Spain, besides being defended along its frontiers by forty-nine 
fortified towns, has an army of 1,083,595 who in time of war 
can be summoned to the field. The army consists of (1) the 
permanent army, (2) the first reserve, (3) the second reserve. 
Every male able-bodied Spaniard twenty-nine years of age is 
liable to service, but may purchase exemption by the payment 
of 1,500 pesetas. The service consists of three years in the reg- 
ular army, three more in the first reserve, and six in the sec- 
ond reserve. The peace footing is nominally set at a little over 
115,000 men. As a matter of fact, hawever, the army under 
the estimates of 1893 was as follows : 



Executive. 



Judiciary. 



Army and 
Navy. 



342 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



Local gov- 
ernment. 



Colonial. 



Infantry 52,239 

Cavalry 14,499 

Artillery 9,349 

Engineers 3,824 

Others 233 

Total 80,144 

The navy is composed of the following ships : 

Armor-clads 6 

Cruisers 18 

Torpedo boats 24 

Frigates 2 

Submarine boats 1 

Gunboats 51 

Others 30 

Total 132 

Spain is divided into forty-nine provinces and these are gov- 
erned by deputaciones provinciales whose powers are prescribed 
by the constitution. The municipalities or communes, called 
puebloSj are governed by mayors, who have to assist them 
ajuntamientos, or councils. These are composed of different 
numbers of men according to the number of inhabitants in 
each commune, ranging from five to thirty-nine in member- 
ship. These bodies elect the mayors (alcaldes) and have ex- 
tensive local powers in matters of taxation, care of roads, etc. 
Both the provincial deputations and the councils are free from 
interference theoretically on the part of the national govern- 
ment so long as they keep within the powers granted them by 
the constitution, but in fact the imperial government often does 
interfere. 

In the Atlantic Ocean Spain possesses the islands of Cuba 
and Puerto Rico. Both these colonies are represented in the 
Spanish Cortes, and Cuba has a governor appointed by the 
Spanish crown. He is assisted by a council also appointed by 
the crown. The island is divided into three districts, each 
having local administrations. 

In the Pacific Ocean Spain possesses the' Philippine Islands 
and several smaller islands. The government of the Philip- 
pines is carried on by a governor-general appointed by the 
crown. There are forty-three districts of different sizes gov- 
erned by alcaldes in a manner somewhat similar to the Span- 
ish local government system. 

The colonial possessions of Spain have an area and popula- 
tion as follows : 



SPAIN. 



343 



Name of Possession. 


Area. 


Population. 


Cuba 


43,220 

3,550 

114,326 

950 

560 

420 

243,000 

27 

850 


1,521,684 

806,708 

7,000,000 


Puerto Rico 


Philippine Islands 


Sulu Islands 


75,000 


Caroline Islands and Palaos 


36,000 


Marianne Islands 


10,172 


Rio de Oro and Adrar 


100,000 


Ifni 


6,000 


Fernando Po, Annabon, Corisco, 
Elobey, and San Juan 


30,000 






Total 


406,903 


9,585,564 







With the year 1876 regeneration began in Spain, but the 
ruin caused by nearly a century of war has been so complete 
that the country is only now beginning to recover. The first 
great danger was the Carlist Revolution, which was finally 
suppressed for all time in 1876-77. Then during the premier- 
ship of Canovas a war against the Catholics began, and 
parties divided on that issue. 

Alfonso XII. gradually brought the state back to the clerical 
party. The press was curtailed to a certain extent and the 
right of assembly was limited. But the power of the military, 
the need of unity against the Carlists, and the general tendency 
of the new king to conduct the government in the interests of 
his people, even though he did this by monarchical methods, 
tended to bring about harmony. Measures were taken for 
placing the debt on a firm basis and for regulating the tariff of 
the state. Canovas's ministry fell on the Cuban question in 
March, 1879, the revolution there having occupied the atten- 
tion of the government since 1873. The expense of this war 
and the comparatively small results, together with the question 
of freeing the slaves in Cuba, brought hostile votes against the 
ministry, but after a few months of the ministry under Cam- 
pos, Canovas returned in December. The Liberal movement 
against the Roman Catholic measures grew stronger and 
stronger, however, and in 1881 Canovas was forced to resign 
again. Sagasta, a keen Liberal statesman, took the helm, but 
the Liberal party was still without sufiicient organization to 
hold a majority of all its parts and thus defeat the strong and 
well-trained Conservative Catholic minority. Sagasta fell, be- 
cause of his lack of organization, while the king was travel- 
ing in Europe, and Herrera, a somewhat more radical leader, 



Contem- 
porary 
events. 



344 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

tried in 1883 to get together a working majority. Within a 
year, however, the Conservatives had defeated him, and the 
king recalled Canovas as the only man who could form a min- 
istry. This difRculty of the more liberal thinkers in the state 
is to be explained in the fact that some look to a liberal, repre- 
sentative monarchy as the salvation of Spain and others will 
hear of nothing but a republic, while the socialist and Radical 
Left vote first with one and then the other. Occasional up- 
risings occurred during these years in Madrid and other cities 
on the part of the socialists and RepubUcans but they were 
quickly suppressed, and during all these changes the Conserva- 
tives maintained their compact organization. 

King Alfonso died in November, 1885, and the present king, 
his son, Alfonso XIII., was born of his second wife, Christina, 
in May of the following year. The birth of this son averted 
a great danger from the state, since the queen had two daugh- 
ters but no son, and the Carlists, Republicans, and socialists 
were already at work to overthrow the regent queen, when Al- 
fonso was born and the threatening cloud passed away. 

The extraordinary diplomatic and statesmanlike power of 
Sagasta in holding the half dozen branches of the Lib- 
eral party together from 1885 until 1890 is to be explained 
only in his policy of moderation and his willingness to make 
concessions, and thus disarm the opposition of the Republicans 
on the one hand, and of the Conservatives on the other. He 
introduced in these years, civil marriage, a new suffrage law, 
extensive labor acts, but the great stumbling block was for 
him as well as for others the financial question. The general 
era of labor uprising that swept over the civilized world in 
1889 and 1890, combined with the general tottering condition of 
Sagasta's ministry, which had been reorganized several times 
during the last four j'^ears, led to a dissolution in 1890. Canovas 
del Castillo again represented the Conservatives, but fell in 
1892 owing to the lack of support in his own party on the 
question of the government of the city of Madrid, which had 
become so atrocious that a committee was appointed to in- 
vestigate it. The disclosures made by this committee were 
such that a popular wave of feeling rose against the mayor, 
who resigned, and Canovas in attempting to defend him, re- 
fusing to prosecute him, led to the downfall of the ministry. 



SPAIN. 345 

Sagasta returned to power and began again on the great finan- 
cial question. He gave place in 1894 to Christitch who early 
in 1895 fell and again left a vacancy for Sagasta to fill. 



00 00 



00 00 00 



>- 






< 


M 




^ 


»— 1 







1 


8 

oo 

M 


^ 




o 


Q 


1 


2 


Z 




w 


< 




CO 


z 


■ 




LU 




D 


Q 


bf) 


Oi 


m 


fl 




5: 


W 




C/D 







-a s be CI 
.•:2 ^ P QJ 

(h g S eSiS 

is 
o 

pq 



+3 
ft 



ix 

c3 J3 cS 
O w O 



oioo-^ 
o^ -^ 
00 00 00 

1— 1^ >-H 

I I I 

C<105 00 

t^oooc 



S ^ ill 

^ 5*-( V^ ttH 

o o o o 

Jh ^H S-i S-c 
<D O 1) <V 

M CC M CO 



bp 

o 






H 



.s 



« :« cS 



o 

05 

Si . 
O © 

fl-p ft 

cu Ji c3 
'-- ^ -3 ^ H H 



tM ;iH ■" <i-i 

o o o o 

Sh S-i l^ ^^ 

(B 0) OI 

-U -t-5 -tJ -IJ 

tC 05 02 02 

"S 'S "S '3 



sot^-^^cicOLOOcq«ccoocoo;cooc;i:^as>-H 
.— (:^ccooi>o-*i-HiCi— i(Nt^Ococoio?5-*0'* 
cq^-^QC CO lO i<i^ i>_-^eo_c<j_OQ_<»_oo 00 cc i>^u^'* c co 

00 o'er o 00 lo i>~^t>^«rT»rt-^c<rj>ri>rco~^''c<rto cT 

"*OJ^CqOOOSCJ51>i>i— loqtO00C<l(N00COCO(N 

I— i I— I r-H i-H I— I I— I 1— I I— I i-H 1— ( 1— ( 



;DrflOiOOCqcDlCffOOOTiH^-<j<coiOmoOCQU3(MlO 

ioo5^ oieooii:ooococ<j ■<ti oo oo co lO eo os 
o u^cq_r>j_i>_oo oo_cq^oo_ic o^ ^^'^^'~X'^~1,'^ 
c4~i-rooric KTco'c^TcoiaJ' (--Tic'tCoo'Ttro'oo 



a) (U 

^ 09 OJ'TI 

:• « 2 S5 «« 

fe 2 <D CS-S 



,bc 



Js d S ® 2 cs 

#^ M « 01 S 
rt OQ 7^ ^ "C ■♦^ 

Wfq>^pq;^J 



3 :S 
<v G (u 

tn (D O 0) _ 

©coif m — G 
^^ Seng's 



B 
© 

o 

73 -d a s 

o o li.rt 



a 



i>TT<oo>-i<MooTtHt^i— iLO(Mi— leqiocib-ioooTtfTfijMo-^ixM 

COMOiCCl«Ot^-^C<HC(MOC<)I^OqcOOiOI:^CO:OCC.-H05 

^^■*~c<^ooco"ooo6"Q(^.--^^Qo•<^^^■*'c4'co'o"Tt^o^'^c<^1--^ooc^ 

C<l 1— I r-H I— ( <N 1— 1 1— I <M 1— I C<J CO 1— I so Cq C<1 (M 1— 1 1— I C\|(M (M 1— ( >— I ^H 



coio«o-^cOTM-HoocOTt<t^t^05Cqoob-:D>-^eo^HOOoec(Meot» 

I— i05iceo-*<:o-wcooi:oo-^03iO-*OTfi(Mcqcqi-Hcoos-*cO'-* 

020«0'M'*oo-*(M'— ioooooososcoi:oirsco-*Tt<ioioc5u:!to 



So 

Q O O w^ 
02 



CO r, ^H 



• O w 

bco 2 csS ^-^ 
M Oij cs 9-1, J 



•d 

S3 

CO d 



O 

pq 

-d 
d 
eg 

« w o -i M o 






S bD -^ . 



to uX 
O C c3 



SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 



The kingdom of Sweden and Norway occupies the penin- 
sula between the Baltic and North Seas known as the Scandi- 
navian Peninsula. It extends from Lapland on the north to 
within a few miles of Denmark on the south. It is bounded 
on the east by the Baltic and on the west by the North Sea. 
The government is 




that of two limited 
monarchies joined in 
a personal union under 
the hereditary king of 
Sweden. Stockholm, 
the capital of Sweden, 
is the capital of the 
two kingdoms and has 
a population of 257,037. 
In 1792, on the as- 
sassination of the king, 
a regency was insti- 
tuted, Gustavus IV. 
being under age. At 
that time the political 
parties were divided 
into two factions, one 
composed of the nobles 
who desired a consti- 
tutional government 
and the other of those 
who felt themselves 
satisfied with the ex- 
isting government. Gustavus III. had involved Sweden in a 
war with Russia in the hope of regaining part of the territory 
along the Russian border. The state had been therefore im- 
poverished by this war, when Gustavus IV., in his hostility to 

347 



History 
since i8oo. 



348 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY^ 

republican principles, got himself into difficulties with France 
after the peace of Tilsit in which he lost Stralsund and other 
territories. Later on France instigated Denmark to declare 
war against Sweden, with the result that the Swedish troops 
were defeated and the government was obliged to cede Zealand 
to the Danes. 

These defeats and the persistency of the king in following 
his own theories led to his deposition by the Swedish people. 
Under the title of Charles XIII. the Duke of Sodermanland 
succeeded to the throne in 1809 by the choice of the people, the 
family of Gustavus IV. having been declared no longer eligible 
to the crown. The new king found his government in difficult 
relations with France, England, and Russia. He was obliged 
to cede Finland to Russia and to use all diplomatic skill to 
make satisfactory alliances with foreign countries. After 
settling affairs abroad Charles began reforms in the constitu- 
tion. The Diet was made up of noblemen, clergymen, burgh- 
ers, and peasants, and under the reformed constitution this 
body was given a large share of the executive work. This con- 
cession to the Diet did much to put an end to the hostilities 
between parties and against the government. 

The Swedish state has not in this century come into promi- 
nence in foreign affairs. Its situation and importance do not 
make it of great moment in European questions. In 1813 
Marshal Bernadotte was chosen as the successor to the Swedish 
throne, and under the name of Charles John he assumed later 
on the crown, and being a man of remarkable ability gathered 
the reins of the government into his own hands. In 1813 he 
was sent to aid the allies against Napoleon, and at the peace of 
Kiel, immediately after the fall of Napoleon when the new 
division of boundaries in Europe came up for discussion, he 
forced Denmark to give up Norway to Sweden. 

Since that time Norway and Sweden, while maintaining 
each its own state government, have constituted one sov- 
ereign power having representatives in common among foreign 
nations, all of which are appointed by the king of Sweden. 

At the Congress of Vienna the Swedish territory of Pome- 
rania was absorbed by Prussia, and Norway became the terri- 
tory of Sweden. The reign of Charles John began in 1818, when 
he assumed the title of Charles XIV. He showed the same lib- 



SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 349 

eral spirit as king that had characterized his poUcy as crown 
prince, and he furthermore adopted tlie habits of the country 
and took as much interest in the welfare of Sweden as if he 
had been a Swede. His reign was one of reform. Roads and 
canals were built, commercial intercourse with the outer world 
was encouraged, and the improvement in transportation, open- 
ing up the country as it did, had much to do in raising the 
Scandinavians to the level of the people of the other European 
nations. There is no doubt, however, that the constitution 
was inadequate to the wants of the people, and had it not been 
for the sentiment among them which led them to call their 
king " the foreigner," a scheme for a new constitution which 
he instituted might have been realized to the great advantage 
of the country. With the accession in 1844 of Oscar, the son 
of Bernadotte, great hopes were entertained that these propo- 
sals for a new government published four years before would be 
adopted. Such hopes were not fulfilled, however. Oscar, in 
the course of his reign, put but few of these proposals into op- 
eration. The criminal code was rearranged, however, trial bj^ 
jury introduced, the remnants of feudalism regarding the in- 
heritance of property were done away with, and both sexes 
and all classes were given equal rights before the common law. 
Railroads having also by this time become necessary the world 
over, Oscar made it an especial work of his to supply Sweden 
with a system as extensive as its topography would allow. 
But further than this the new king's ardor for liberal reform 
did not go. The burghers were strongly in favor of the new 
principles. A committee appointed to consider the matter of 
revising the constitution reported favorably, but their proposi- 
tions had to stand over a year or two, and when that time had 
passed it was found impossible to put the reforms through. 

The revolutions in Europe in 1848 had little influence over 
the Swedish people. They increased the demand for change in 
the constitution and government, however, which the author- 
ities could not resist. The war between Denmark and Prussia 
stirred up the friendly spirit that had grown between Denmark 
and Sweden, and the latter sent troops to the former's aid, 
which did little more than to bring about the armistice of 
Malmoe. 

Sweden in 1855 took no part in the Crimean War, but fol- 



350 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

lowed the policy adopted heretofore of holding aloof from 
European troubles and giving all her attention to the protection 
of her own territory. Toward- the end of the war, however, a 
treaty was signed with France and England and accepted at 
the Congress of Paris in 1856, by which Sweden on her side 
bound herself to prevent Russia from acquiring more of her 
territory, and the other parties agreed on their side to come to 
Sweden's assistance in case Russia attempted to seize such 
territory. 

In 1859 Oscar I. died, and Charles XV. became king after a 
two years' regency during the illness and incapacity of Oscar 
I. The exertions of the burghers to bring about reform in the 
constitution increased with the beginning of a new adminis- 
tration. They now had the assistance of the peasantry which 
formed a strong party composed of two of the four divisions of 
the Diet. And for six years they fought for the introduction of 
a parliament of two houses, for a responsible ministry, and for 
the organization of the different divisions of the government 
under the system of a constitutional monarchy. In 1865 the 
king was won over, and the reforms carried through. The 
new constitution which is still in force was put into effect in 
1866-7. 

Since 1870 the important question in Scandinavian politics 
has been that of the union of the two countries. Of late years 
the question has been drawing to a crisis. The Norwegians are 
strongly in favor of dissolution and of the substitution of a 
naerely personal union under one king, observing one foreign 
policy. On the other hand, there is a very large part of the 
body politic, which includes up to the present a majority of 
the members of the Parliament, that feels that Norway is only 
a burden to Sweden, and it is therefore probable that a dissolu- 
tion of the existing union may not be far distant. 

The death of Charles XV. in 1872 brought his brother, Oscar 
II., to the throne. Swedish history during the past decade has 
treen that of internal affairs rather than that of incidents con- 
nected with European questions. 
Constitu- When the union of Sweden and Norway took place in 1814, 
tions. Norway was declared to be a free and inalienable state, which 
was united to Sweden under a personal union, the king of 
Sweden being chosen by the Norwegians as the hereditary 



SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 351 

king of Norway. Each state has its constitution independent 
of the other, which has grown out of frequently amended tra- 
Iditions. They are, however, joined under one head in all mat- 
ters concerning foreign relations, etc. 

I. Sweden. 

The Swedish constitution is of very old standing. It origi- 
nally consisted of four houses, but in 1809 it was reorganized 
into something like its present state. Since then, the royal 
successions were settled in 1810, the freedom of the press de- 
clared in 1812, and the constitution itself amended in 1866 on 
lines borrowed from the government of England. 

There is a Parliament, or Riksdag, consisting of two houses, 
and having charge of the legislative portion of the government lature". 
which it shares to some extent with the king. The Upper 
House consists of 143 members, one for every 30,000 inhabitants, 
who are nominated and elected by the Landsthings, or gather- 
ings of the divisions of the state. These are twenty-five in 
number besides four municipalities. A candidate must be 
thirty-five years of age and must have possessed for at least 
three years about $20,000 worth of real estate, or an income of 
about $1,000. Members are elected for a term of nine years. 

The Second Chamber consists at present of 222 members who 
are divided into two classes, members representing the towns, 
76 in number, and those representing the rural districts, 146 in 
all. In the rural districts there is one representative for every 
10,000 inhabitants and in the towns one for every 40,000, an- 
other being added for towns with a population of over 40,000. 
The suffrage law obliges a voter to be a Swede by birth, twenty- 
one years of age, and possessing a stipulated income, real estate 
to a certain amount or farm lands of prescribed value and in 
his possession for five years. The same qualifications with an 
increased age limit of twenty-five years are the necessary fac- 
tors to constitute a man a candidate eligible to the Chamber. 
Elections for both Houses are by ballot. Both Houses meet 
annually and sit for four months. Portions of the detail of 
the legislation are carried on by a Grand Committee consisting 
of half the members of each House of the Riksdag. 

The king is the executive officer acting under the advice of Executive, 
a Council of State, which is composed of ten members, seven 



352 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



Judiciary. 



Army and 
Navy. 



Local gov- 
ernment. 



Legisla- 
ture. 



holding portfolios. The Council is responsible to the Riksdag 
and every act must be signed by a minister as well as by the 
king. The king may initiate measures and veto them. 

There is a chancellor of justice appointed by the king who 
acts as a council for the crown, and an attorney-general ap- 
pointed by the Diet, who has general supervision of the laws 
of the kingdom. There is also a Supreme Court at Stock- 
holm, being the appeal court for three large district courts, 
which are again divided into 206 courts of the first instance. 

The Lutheran Church is by far the most popular, though all 
creeds are tolerated. Education is represented by the Uni- 
versities of Upsala and Land, and in the lower grades by a 
large number of schools. Primary education is compulsory 
and free. 

The Swedish army is composed of the (1) Va?'fsade, or regu- 
lar enlisted troops, (2) the Indelta^ or troops serving part of 
each year for about thirty years, the soldiers having little 
farms assigned to them for cultivation — in all 39,543, and (3) the 
Varnpligtige^ or conscripted troops taken from the balance of 
the male population between the ages of twenty-one and 
thirty-two years. These number at present 307,000. The 
army, therefore, with 17,000 volunteers, has a possible max- 
imum of 360,000. 

The navy consists of 61 vessels : 16 ironclads, 39 unarmored 
steamers, and 6 others. 

There is a local municipal government in each town com- 
posed of members elected by the taxpayers, but the president 
of the local assembly in each case is appointed by the king. 
There are twenty-four provincial departments under an ap- 
pointed prefect, but the communes or municipalities are given 
extensive powers in the administration of their local affairs. 
The king, however, holds a check over the provisional govern- 
ments by his right to appoint all the department presidents 

and prefects. 

II. Norway. 

The Norwegian constitution dates back to 1814 when the 
Ch'undlov^ or constitution of Norway, was adopted. It haa 
since been amended several times but only in its details. 

The legislative power is vested in a Storthing, or Assembly, 
which meets annually without necessarily waiting to be called 



SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 



353 



by the king, though his sanction is required to allow it to sit 
longer than two months — from February to April. After the 
elections have been held for the Storthing it divides into the 
Lagthing, or Upper House, composed of one quarter of the 
total Storthing, and the Odalsthing, or Lower House, com- 
prising the rest of the members of the Storthing. This di- 
vision is made to insure careful discussion for every measure. 
All bills are initiated in the Odalsthing and then passed to 
the Lagthing. In case of disagreement both Houses meet in 
joint session. The Storthing has the usual legislative powers 
in regard to the making and repealing of laws, deciding with 
the king on foreign treaties, peace, war, etc. It may pass a 
measure over the king's veto, but to become a law this mea'sure 
must twice be passed over the veto, and it thus requires nearly 
four years to put through legislation that is opposed by the 
king. 

The king is the executive officer, having to assist him a Executive. 
Council of State composed of two ministers of state and seven 
councilors. He may appoint a viceroy for Norway, but only 
his son and grandson are eligible. Two councilors are ap- 
pointed annually and one minister of state resides in Stock- 
holm near the person of the king. The Council of State must 
be composed of Norwegians. The king possesses the usual 
executive powers and may veto a bill twice but not three 
times, as already mentioned. 

There is a Supreme Court in Norway, the Hoiesteret^ consist- judiciary, 
ing of a president and six judges, and this is the highest 
court excepting the Rlgsret, or High Court, composed of both 
the Hoiesteret and the Storthing. Below the Hoiesteret there 
are three superior courts each composed of three justices. 
There are courts of the first instance for all but the smallest 
cases, each covering one of the one hundred and seventeen cir- 
cuits. Trial by jury was instituted in 1867 in criminal cases. 

The Lutheran Church is the state endowed church and the 
I clergy are appointed by the crown. Religious freedom is, 
however, absolute with the exception that Jesuits are not 
tolerated. Education is compulsory between the ages of six 
and fourteen. There is a university at Christiania, and over 
6,000 schools under state supervision. 

Every Norwegian twenty- two years of age is liable to con- 



354 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

scription, except the inhabitants of the three northern dis- 
Navy. tricts. The service is for twenty-four days in each year for six 
years, with liability to be called upon at any time during that 
period for further service. The sixth year is served in the 
Landvaern, or reserve. The whole term of military service 
is thirteen years : five in the regular army, four in the Land- 
vaern^ and four in the Landsturm. The total military power 
is about 41,000. 

The navy consists of 4 ironclads, 2 corvettes, 31 gunboats, 9 
torpedo boats, and 2 others — in all 48 vessels. 
Local gov- Norway is divided into twenty districts, each ruled over by 
ernment. ^^ aTutmand who is appointed by the crown. Each ami, or 
provincial district, is divided into herreds^ or communes (500 
in all), and each herred has its council and body of representa- 
tives for local administration. The councilors and representa- 
tives of all the herreds in an amt, with the sheriffs and certain 
other officials form a county diet, the amtmand presiding. 
Question of During the years 1893-4 the important question in Scandi- 
dissoiution navian politics — the union or separation of the two kingdoms 
— became more and more important. It seems now to be 
doubtful whether this fusional union of two practically inde- 
pendent nationalities can be maintained indefinitely, for 
while in Sweden there is a general feeling that the foreign 
affairs of both countries should be entirely under one head, 
there is a slight change of opinion as to the advisability of 
Sweden's burdening herself with Norway. On the other 
hand, Norway, which has four times as much maritime busi- 
ness as Sweden, objects to having the care and direction of 
this shared equally with the latter. In 1837 Sweden agreed to 
have the ministry of foreign affairs responsible to both legisla- 
tures if the Norwegians would agree to have their military 
serve as a defense in case of attack on either or both king- 
dom.s. This was then refused. Now the demand of Norway 
is that she should have an independent ministry of foreign 
affairs and that the matters especially concerning Norway 
coming under the charge of such a ministry, such as diplo- 
matic and consular affairs, should be carried on by this 
Norwegian foreign office to the exclusion of the Swedish gov- 
ernment. The Norwegian idea, in other words, is that 
Norway and Sweden should be united only in the person of 



SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 355 

the king, and that in all other matters each kingdom should 
act for itself. In 1893 and 1894 several changes of ministry 
resulted from this discussion and the kingdom had difficulty 
in getting any one to form a new cabinet. In 1894 and 1895 
this discussion has gradually approached a head, and the 
probabilities are that the matter will not be satisfactorily 
settled until the union is practically annulled and each king- 
dom is left to itself to conduct its own affairs, and meantime 
the claim made by Norwegians that they have a right to 
appoint their own consular service under the compact creating 
the union seems to have gained credence. 



Q 
Z 

< 

m 

N 
en 



H o 
^ oo 

w8 



p^ 



GOOD 

00 QO 
I— l-H 

to CO 00 

1— I COTt< 

00 00 00 



M CO 

fl-u 



I— I m '-^ 

Z!o o 

t»H rK '^ 

^ eS o 



00 00 00 
p. 00 00 



2 4)-. 

•^+^ 2 

.26^ 

> > ° 

"©'■1-3 O 

O 0) 0) 



h 



Et, O <B S rt S 
. ^'^'Sm (b o 



O) 

Ph 






^<5W 






w <f^ w .2 •" S '^ ^ 



2oso.J:a)2 

«M "tt "t! 'tS "H *!:"" 
O O O O O O O 
4j ^j +3 +3 +3 +3 ^j 

pa a a G a a 
S <» 4> a> o Qj a> 

ssaaass 

^3 -»^ -.-3 .t.3 -^ ^ ^ 
'^ f^ S^ S^ U %^J^ 

^ ^ ^ ^ cd ^ cS 

o, A &4 p. &I a, p^ 
a) <D o 0) !B 0) © 

©©©©©©© 

+3 +3 +3 +3 ■«J +3 +3 
5m ^ **H ^ 'i-^ •l-^ 5(^ 
0000000 

c3 ^ ^ ci ^ ri oS 
q) a> © © © © © 



CD 









eg 






1! 



6 



CS TO w 

S3 ^ ^ 
O © ® 

+3 03 03 
a 02 M 

S o o 



Q) q; © © 

S+3 S © ©53-tit^-^ . 

S «2 S © © M" * . eg 

bcfl ticbcticcl »r! S fe >H 
00 O a3Coa2QSOm'» 

aSflflflSoSof^ 

03 , « c3 ce e8 ,=5 !h =5 !-( cS 



© © 

•o-c 

^ -( — I ^ ^ ^ 

«iip5tfP5 

S-( hn hr >H -I t< 
© W 03 © © © 
W^^ 03 05 02 

O d fl O O O 
tl o3 C3 Sh !h ^. 



.C © © 

+3 50 03 
^ « fl 
MOO 

03 H fl 

O 03 eS 

(h ^ ^ 

000 



A © Ol 

+i 03 05 

J CI n 

P^ o o 

03 H n 

O e3 c3 

!h ^ ^ 

000 



•<-3+3+3.^+3+S+i g-t-3 

mmmmvimmGm • 
bC&O&CbfibCbObCO bc^ 

aaaaaa a^ a*i 

i? 05 



u i^ %, ^^ Z, %!, Z^ w 02 
©©©©©©©T3©42 

'Ei)D'El'5ib'3)'5ib'5c'5b 9 '5b ^ 

©©©©©©©_w©w 



+3*3+3+3 +J C+3 M+3+3*e+3 C+3+3 

c8o3fl8e8^2w^o3^'-'-^c3c3w^ 

tommmx^m^w oofhE^ ©Hm 
bCt>CbJDiscbZ)ObJ0»!ic bC^ tr .rt r W 

q a fl a fliii G J d B o-d M-c-e 



^ »H V, ^ h. 



.2^.2 .2 .2 "2 .2 «.2.2-sl-|ll 

bCbCbDSCtiDS bX)"© bcbcfl fl S fl fl 
©©©©©^©r-H©ajSQ«Qo 

«tfD3«pH^P5MpH03OO0QOU 



(5C0U5O^l>t^CqcCl>l0l0C0CDCD(M.-lO<M0»O'^>000I> 



iM<NC<lC^<N.-(r-(IM(Meq<Nf-ifHeflfHr-(C<I(MN(N<NCqC<IC<l!N 



C00500Jt--.COOOiOOlC rH05^ CO OSOOTtlOOOO—'iOiOSCOS 
00t>CC-*O-*CC!M(MLCC<l-*Tti00OQ01>T-iaci>iCt000iCO 



r-< 1— I I— I N tH 1— ( I— ( 



>t^05iOr^ec(MtXN'<tiC3-*( 



>lOI>t-(lO00i— (COOsrfiOr-l?Oi— lOWt^t~-^0b66 



•^*<^-H35COiMt-IOO'*t»(MO0 

■ -_ ■>*oooo-*c<ii— 10 

t>t>i.ocoo<MoeO'-i 




i>t~i>'-*eo N c<) 1-H CD ■* i^c<i ^-Hiooic«)NU5icto I E; 

1— IC^ ^H I— t 1— I I ^ 



SWITZERLAND. 



^^irujnhau6eii|> Wi^sScbaffhsuBeE 



The republic of Switzerland lies in the central part of Europe, 
completely surrounded by other states, and it is therefore with- 
out any coast-line. The Alps form natural boundaries for the 
state. Switzerland is bounded on the north by France and 
Germany, on the east by Germany and Austria, on the 
south by Italy, and on the west by France. The government 
is that of a republic of the most advanced form, consisting of 
a union of a number of cantons, each having extensive powers 
in local affairs. The capital is Berne with a population of 
536,679. 

In the study of Swiss history it is impossible to understand 
the present government without some examination into the 
traditional influences that have led up to the republic of to- 
day. The present 
state has been made 
up of bits taken 
from the adjoining 
nations. French, 
German, and Italian 
are spoken in differ- 
ent cantons, and in 
the National Assem- 
blies it is necessary to 
have an interpreter to 
translate all speeches 
into any one of the three languages that the members may re- 
quire. The three divisions into which the inhabitants are di- 
vided by language are emphasized by distinct customs, differ- 
ent traditions, and different theories of government and life. 
The Confederation has through a long series of years been 
evolved out of the most heterogeneous material. Differing as 
they did in many of the essential qualities of government, these 

357 




History 
since 1800. 



358 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

different independent states gradually came together for greater 
safety, were then lirst guaranteed by France, and became more 
closely united as the eighteenth century drew to a close. It 
was impossible for them to unite in a centralized government 
on account of these very differences, and thus out of small 
portions of the adjoining countries and small independent 
neutral states a confederation has grown into a nation, not 
very closely bound together within itself, not powerful as a 
nation, therefore, but so situated on the map of Europe with 
reference to the great powers that in order to preserve the bal- 
ance of power its integrity has been guaranteed by these powers 
themselves. When the revolution broke out in France in 1789 
it had a great effect on the Swiss Cantons, as they were then 
called. France had for nearly three hundred years been closely 
connected with its cosmopolitan neighbor and the fall of the 
Bourbons threw the cantons into fierce party struggles. In 
the east, Austrian influence was thrown off and the districts 
there joined the western cantons, first in forming three inde- 
pendent states, and afterwards, following the advice of the 
Directoire at Paris, in effecting a compromise which resulted 
in the formation of the Helvetic Republic, on the 29th of 
March, 1798. A constitution was drawn up and accepted by 
ten of the thirteen districts and the Confederation formed. 
There were first twenty-three and afterwards nineteen cantons. 
Since the revolutionists, who were so in sympathy with 
the French Revolution, had triumphed, they decided that the 
government of this new state was to be as far removed from a 
government by the aristocracy as possible. Hence the Helvetic 
Republic was a centralized state. A central government was 
set up at Lucerne. In place of the collection of small allied 
aristocratic states, independent within their own territory and 
speaking different languages, a strongly centralized govern- 
ment was instituted. There was a central legislature consist- 
ing of a Grand Council, or Lower House, and a Senate of four 
delegates from each canton, in place of the almost independent 
cantonal government. Prefects, agents, and servants of the 
central government had control of local matters in each can- 
ton. Such a radical change could not be maintained. Revo- 
lutions broke out among the forest cantons in 1799, and in 
January, 1800, the Helvetic Republic was replaced by an Ex- 



SWITZERLAND. 359 

ecutive Committee, again brought about through the influence 
of the Paris government. 

Two distinct parties now began to form, the Unitaries and 
the Federalists. The struggle was a long one and the state of 
affairs in the cantons grew constantly worse. Gradually the 
Federalists gained the power, and in 1802 representatives from 
all the cantons were summoned to Paris to confer with Na- 
poleon as to the government of their territory. 

Napoleon had sufficient interest in the country and sufficient 
appreciation of its traditions to reinstate the old order of gov- 
ernment on a new basis, for the conference at Paris amounted 
to nothing more nor less than the submission of a plan to 
the deputies which they were forthwith constrained to accept. 
Thus on February 19, 1803, the Act of Mediation was adopted. 
In its clauses one may trace many of the sources of the present 
constitution. It combined many wise measures for the good 
of Switzerland, as the country was from this time called, which 
had they not depended on the personality of the emperor 
might have kept Switzerland at peace. 

There were now in all nineteen cantons and each was to 
have extensive local powers. At the same time they were to 
send delegates to a diet, which was to assemble in successive 
years at six of the most important cantonal capitals, which 
were named the *' Vororte." Delegates had certain powers in 
regard to voting, but they could not go beyond or contrary to 
the instructions given them by the canton government they 
represented. Napoleon in many cases restored the old sys- 
tem of legislative government, called the Landsgemeinde, or 
popular open-air meeting, of the citizens to carry on legislative 
discussions. In the less democratic governments the Great or 
Legislative House and the Small or Executive Council were 
reinstituted. Traces of both these ancient forms of govern- 
ment can be found in the constitution of to-day. 

Napoleon's changes were most marked in the destruction of 
class distinction and of the feudal system where it still existed. 
But when the fall of the emperor came, the support of the Act 
of Mediation was taken away and it fell forthwith, without 
regard to the fact that the country had progressed during ten 
years under this its latest form of government. 

When the allied troops began to close around Napoleon, part 



360 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

of the Swiss territory was occupied by soldiers for one reason or 
another, and in 1813 a revolution broke out at Berne, over- 
threw tlie government, and set up the old aristocratic, inde- 
pendent state. Zurich, on the other hand, headed the Oppo- 
sition, and it was not until the Congress of Vienna in 1815 set- 
tled the Swiss question that peace was restored. 

At Vienna the integrity and neutrality of Switzerland was 
guaranteed by the powers. At the same time Valais, Neuch^- 
tel, and Geneva became regular members of the Confederation, 
making twenty-two cantons in all. A small amount of terri- 
tory called Valtelline went to Austria and Miilhausen to 
France. 

The next government for Switzerland was the Pact of 1815 
as prepared by the same Congress. The cantons were again 
declared sovereign, and the members of the Diet voted simply 
within their instructions. They could do nothing without 
specific authority from their home governments. Here was 
the cause of the eventual failure of the system. The aristocracy 
were masters of the situation again. Switzerland fell back into 
its old position, as did the rest of Europe, and was only parti- 
ally awakened by the Revolution of 1830. In 1819 the Helvetic 
Society became one of the political parties and within the can- 
tons gradually gained strength, bringing out the democratic 
centralizing spirit among the people. 

Finally, in March, 1832, the seven cantons of Zurich, Berne, 
Lucerne, Soleure, St. Gall, Argovie, and Thurgovie, instituted 
new constitutions and signed the Slebener Concordat^ by which 
they, finding no safety in the central power of the Diet, agreed 
to join in a defensive alliance for the greMer safety of them- 
selves and their new constitution. 

In Bale, in 1833, trouble that had been long brewing came 
to a head and the canton was divided into B^le City and BMe 
Country. Another reaction set in in 1839 at Zurich, where the 
Radicals gained the upper hand. Catholicism entered into the 
contest in 1840 and stirred up a revolt in Argovie. The ad- 
vance of democratic ideas meant the inevitable destruction of 
Catholicism and in Argovie it had arrived at such a state that 
the church lands were being confiscated. The result was a re- 
union of the seven Catholic cantons, signed on the 2d of 
September, 1843, and known as the Sonderbund. In the fol- 



SWITZERLAND. 361 

lowing year they demanded a restitution of all church property 
in Switzerland. Lucerne became the scene of riots in the next 
two years, where the Catholics attempted to reinstate the 
bishops. 

The Diet in 1847 declared the Sonderbund, which had now 
become an armed power in Switzerland, contrary to the Pact 
of 1815, and proceeded against it. Fighting occurred in Novem- 
ber, but the cantons quickly gave way before the army of the 
Diet. 

Meanwhile two men named Kern and Orney had drawn up 
a new constitution which was finally accepted in the next year 
by fifteen and one half cantons. This constitution, amended 
in 1874 and later, is the one in force to-day, and the material 
growth of Switzerland began with the date of its adoption. It 
came into life before the revolutionary period of 1847 and saved 
Switzerland from the upheaval that other European countries 
went through in that year. Gradually, owing partly to its 
neutrality and partly to its republican government in such 
close proximity to the older monarchical systems, Switzerland 
has grown to be the center of social, progressive discussion in 
Europe. 

In 1857 King William of Prussia gave up his rights as prince 
in Neuchatel where his family had been the feudal lords for 
many generations, and the present emperor has finally severed 
all connection with the canton by resigning his title to it. 

The same work of revising cantonal constitutions went on 
after 1848 though in a far more peaceful spirit, the tendency 
always being toward a more democratic government. Out of 
this has grown the system of referring the measures to the 
popular vote after they have been passed by the representa- 
tives of the people. This became general among the cantons 
and was eventually introduced into the federal constitution 
under the name of the Referendum. An attempt was made 
at revision of the constitution in 1872, but it was not until 
1874 that the changes were finally effected. By this revision 
Switzerland has ceased to be a slight union of individual 
cantons and has become a single state, which, though com- 
posed of divisions possessing large local powers, is still one 
united government. 

In 1848, when the revolution broke out in Europe, the chief 



362 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



Con- 
stitution. 



Legis- 
lature. 



result of the movement in Switzerland was a complete re- 
arrangement of the constitution in an organic law. This 
constitutes with sundry amendments the present constitu- 
tion.* 

The legislative part of the government is in the hands of 
the Federal Assembly, which is composed of two houses — the 
Council of State and the National Council. The Council of 
State was an outgrowth of the experiences of the Swiss people 
with a single diet. It was found impossible to carry on a sat- 
isfactory government without some double system for discuss- 
ing measures. Thus under the new constitution of 1848 the 
Council of State was formed. 

Each of the twenty-two cantons is represented in the Upper 
House by two delegates. The requirements for candidacy and 
the term of office are, however, prescribed by each state for 
its own delegates. In this way the membership of the Cham- 
ber is never certain. Some delegates serve but one year, others 
three, and in some cases the delegates are returned by the 
cantonal legislatures, as in the United States Senate, while in 
others they receive their election by popular vote. This makes 
the power of the Council unsteady, and it has not the weight 
throughout the country that the Lower House has. The 
Council elects its own officers and observes the usual parlia- 
m^entary procedure for the furtherance of business. 

The National Council, corresponding to the United States 
House of Representatives, requires that each candidate be a 
Swiss citizen holding no ecclesiastical office, and in the full 
possession of his rights. There is one member chosen to rep- 
resent each canton, so that every canton has a representative ; 
but the proportion is one delegate to every 20,000 inhabitants 
or fraction over 10,000, in each canton. The cantons are di- 
vided into districts, and, according to the decennial census, 
each canton votes for its allotted number of candidates. At 
present the number is 147. Electors must be citizens of 
Switzerland, twenty years of age, and in full possession of 
their civil rights according to the laws of their respective 
cantons. The term of office is three years and members are 



* An able monograph on this subject, by John Martin Vincent, Ph.D., is 
printed in an Extra Volume IX. of the Johns Hopkins University Studies 
in Historical and Political Science, for 1891. 



SWITZERIiAND. 363 

eligible for reelection. The Council elects its own officers and 
chooses four tellers, who, with the president and vice-presi- 
dent, form a committee for nominating other committees, for 
counting votes, etc. Both Chambers meet twice a year, on the 
first Monday in June and December, and they are called to- 
gether by the Federal Council, or, in default of that sum- 
mons, they can be called by any five cantons or one fourth of 
their own members. 

All legislative matters that concern the country at large 
come within the province of the Federal Assembly. It elects 
the members of the Federal Council, the secretary of state, 
and the judges of the Supreme Court, and it thus has distinct 
powers in both the administrative and judicial divisions of the 
government as well as in the legislative. In the latter depart- 
ment it has the right to make and ratify treaties of commerce 
with foreign countries and between the different cantons ; it 
has also the regulation of the election laws for federal offices, 
and the fixing of the amounts to be paid them, all authority 
in financial matters that concerns the federal state, and finally 
it has the power, when called upon by the country at large, to 
alter the constitution. It is also the highest court of justice 
in questions that concern the head of the state. 

When conducting purely legislative matters the two Houses 
sit apart, a majority being required in both before a bill can 
become a law. When the Assembly is sitting as a court of 
justice or is electing federal officials, the two Houses sit to- 
gether. The delegates of both Houses are free frona arrest 
during the session unless taken in the act of crime, and free 
speech is insured. Furthermore, delegates cannot be bound 
by their electors. They represent the country at large. The 
president of the Confederation has not the right of veto, 
though he signs all bills as a matter of course. No member 
may speak more than three times on any one question, but 
he may use either French, German, or Italian, and the inter- 
preter is obliged, when so required, to translate a delegate's 
speech into any of the three languages. It is a remarkable 
thing that there does not, up to the present time, appear to 
have been an example of an attempt to delay business by pro- 
longing a discussion, and though it is necessary to secure a 
two thirds vote of the members present to close a discus- 



364 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



siou, filibustering as practiced in England and the United 
States is unknown. 

The executive functions of the government are carried on 
Executive, by a Federal Council composed of seven members elected by 
the Federal Assembly sitting in joint session. The president 
or chairman chosen by the Federal Council is the president of 
the Confederation. He serves but one year, and cannot be 
reelected to serve a second term. The members of the Council 
are also heads of departments, and they attend to the ad- 
ministration of the laws in detail in their respective depart- 
ments. At the same time, they are also in a body the admin- 
istration of the government. As heads of departments they 
resemble the secretaries in the cabinet of the United States, 
but they are chosen by the legislature and therefore are not 
responsible to the president. They do not resign, however, 
when their policy is not accepted by the legislature, and they 
are not expected to. They are eligible for reelection and the 
custom has been to reelect them year by year. This differ- 
ence between this part of the Swiss government and that of 
other similar governments is an important one. Each mem- 
ber of the Council is chosen for three years and he remains in 
office during that time on the same principle that a member 
of the Lower House retains his office. Changes of cabinet do 
not occur, therefore, and as a result the administrative part of 
the Swiss government is as perfect as that of any other 
country to-day. The duties of the Council are : the intro- 
duction of measures into the National Assembly, general 
supervision and enforcement of the constitution, charge of 
. the national finances, promulgation of laws, the preparation 
and submission of the budget, general charge of foreign re- 
lations, and limited control over the army. That is, the ex- 
ecutive in Switzerland is not centered in one person, but in a 
Council of seven members who exercise the entire executive 
power, the president being nothing more than the presiding 
officer of this Council. The requirements for candidacy are 
the same as those for candidacy to the Lower House. 

The highest judicial court, called the Bundesgericht, con- 
judiciary, sists of nine judges and nine alternates chosen to serve six 
years by the Federal Assembly sitting in joint session, and 
the requirements and qualifications are the same as for election 



SWITZERLAND. 865 

to the National Council, it being only necessary that the three 
nationalities shall be represented. The president and vice- 
president are chosen for terms of two years. The jurisdiction 
of this court is civil, criminal, and constitutional, but the line 
is not distinctly drawn between its powers and those of the 
Federal Assembly. The civil matters that come before it refer 
to the cases (with certain restrictions) between the cantons 
and the federal power, the cantons and individuals and cor- 
porations, between different cantons, and between the Con- 
federation and individuals, and this court also has certain 
jurisdiction in trying appeal cases from cantonal decisions and 
in cases where groups of cantons are concerned. The criminal 
cases referring to political matters concerning the federal 
power, foreign powers, and constitutional matters, come also 
within the jurisdiction of this court. 

It is to be noted, however, that this federal court is not, lilie 
the Supreme Court of the United States, the final authority in 
interpreting the federal constitution, that power resting with 
the Federal Assembly itself. Switzerland is divided into five 
judicial districts, and the Bundesgericht, in its capacity as 
criminal court, sits in each one in succession, all cases being 
tried before a jury. 

In Switzerland it is forbidden under the clauses involving Army, 
the neutrality of the nation to maintain a standing army, but 
all able-bodied men between the ages of 17 and 50 form a 
militia composed of (1) the Elite^ or able-bodied men between 
the ages of 20 and 32; {2) i\\Q Landwehr^ consisting of all 
able-bodied men between the ages of 32 and 44 ; and (3) the 
Landsturm, being the men between the ages of 17 and 50, who 
are not liable to service unless in case of war. The country is 
divided into eight military districts. The Elite consists at 
present of the following : 

Infantry 97,785 

Cavalry 3,019 

Artillery 18,085 

Engineers 4,991 

Others 4,930 

Total 128,810 

Besides these men there are 80,272 in the Landwehr and 268,715 
in the Landsturm, or a total strength of 477,797. 
The governments of the different cantons are supreme, ex- 



366 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



Local gov- 
ernment . 



Referen- 
dum. 



cept where the federal constitution expressly delegates certain 
authorities to the Federal Assembly. Each canton has its can- 
tonal government, differing in details from the others and 
ranging from open-air meetings (Landsgemeinde), composed 
of all able-bodied citizens who elect administrators and pass 
legislative acts on the spot without the introductory steps of 
legislative chambers, to cantonal chambers similar to those of 
the Federal Assembly. The term of office and the duties of 
the Chambers in the larger cantons are similar to those of the 
Federal Assembly. Each canton has its executive commit- 
tee, with its head, called the Landmann, or Schultheis, chosen 
by popular vote, or by the cantonal legislature, as the case may 
be ; each has also a legislative body as described, and a judiciary 
organized in courts of different grades. The judicial systems 
differ in each canton, since they are in each case the out- 
growth of the historical systems. 

The Swiss Referendum is a unique piece of democratic gov- 
ernment in practical use only in Switzerland, though it enters 
to a greater or less extent into all modern democratic govern- 
ments, and can be traced in the English and United States 
systems. Briefly, it provides that all laws, not of immediate 
or urgent nature, when regularly enacted by the Federal As- 
sembly and after promulgation by the Council, shall stand 
ninety days before being put into practice. The Federal Coun- 
cil decides the question of urgency. And if, during these 
ninety days, a petition for reconsideration of the law be signed 
by 30,000 citizens of the country in full possession of electoral 
rights, the Federal Council is obliged to submit the law to a 
vote of the entire Confederation. The law is thereupon pub- 
lished throughout the land, and on a certain day within 
four weeks after such promulgation the entire voting pop- 
ulation of Switzerland go to the polls and vote for or against 
the law. 

If a majority are in its favor, it stands as a law. If, how- 
ever, the majority declare against it, it is nullified and cannot 
be carried through the Federal Assembly again. 

The Federal Assembly examines the petitions and orders the 
Referendum vote. This is one of the interesting questions in 
constitutional science and has created much discussion. It 
was intended as a defense against monarchical measures and 



SWITZERLAND. 



367 



as a means of permitting the people to take active part in their 
own government. The charge brought against it was that it 
would lead to socialism, but far from being socialistic, it has 
tended in its workings to centralize the government and has 
been on the whole a conservative check on the Liberals of ad- 
vanced standing. It has, therefore, up to the present had the 
opposite effect to that which was expected. 

Freedom of conscience is guaranteed by the constitution, but 
no Jesuit orders can exist in Switzerland, nor can any Jesuit 
hold educational or religious office. Education is compulsory 
and each canton has its own educational system. 

The recent history of Switzerland is largely one of unevent- 
ful, steady growth of the central government. There was a 
fear in 1882 that the enormous increase in the use of the Refer- 
endum might lead to the overthrow of the federal government, 
but the fear has not proved to be well founded. Since that 
year the Referendum has not been used as often and the consti- 
tution is firmer than ever. 

The influence of the Catholics has been guarded against by 
the constitution, and when in 1873 the government refused to 
allow the pope to make Geneva a Catholic bishopric, the con- 
test with the Catholic Church that was beginning in Germany 
spread into Switzerland. 

Mousignor Mermillod, the new bishop, paid no attention to 
the decrees of the Assembly and finally had to be removed and 
banished. The pope thereupon denounced the act, and the 
Swiss government broke off diplomatic connection with the 
papacy. The Old Catholic party was strong in its principles, 
also, and in 1876 an attempt was made to make it the state 
church. This failed, and on the accession of Leo X. to the 
papacy conciliatory measures were begun. Mermillod returned 
in 1883 and was received in the bishopric of Geneva and 
Lucerne, which had been vacant since his exile, and at the 
same time communication was again opened with the Vatican. 

But the trouble was not yet over. In April, 1890, in the can- 
ton of Ticino a revolt occurred against the Ultramontane Con- 
servatives, who had been in office fifteen years. The charge 
was made against them that they had removed 1,200 Protestant 
names from the electoral lists, and that thus the Ultramontanes 
had returned themselves to office year by year. It appeared 



Contempo- 
rary 
events. 



Kultur- 
kampf. 



368 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

also that 1,500,000 francs had been taken from the treasury by 
the treasurer of the canton. 

The excitement increased until, on September 11, the Ultra- 
montane government was forcibly overthrown by a revolution, 
and a man named Rossi killed. A popular assembly was at 
once set up, but the Swiss government interfered and sent Col- 
onel Kunzli as envoy extraordinary to take charge of the gov- 
ernment of Ticino. He brought with him 1,500 troops to en- 
force his authority. It was alleged by the Liberals that in 
1881 the districts had been arranged so as to give the Ultra- 
montanes the control of the government, and the demand was 
now made for a rearrangement of electoral districts. Finally 
Colonel Kunzli brought about a conference, having first put 
down an outbreak of the Conservatives against the revolution- 
ists. The conference resulted in the popular vote October 5, 
1890, favoring revision of the cantonal constitution. Mean- 
time Kunzli, on a formal demand from Respini, the president 
of Ticino, had reinstated the cantonal government. On the 
16th of October a meeting was held at Berne to discuss the 
question of the killing of Rossi. It was found that Rossi's 
murderer, Castioni, had fled to England, where he was safe 
under the extradition laws, the offense being political. In the 
new elections the Radicals refused to vote and the assembly of 
the canton in 1891 was, therefore, entirely composed of Conser- 
vatives. They at once amended the constitution to favor the 
Ultramontanes, and, the radicals still refraining from voting, 
it was adopted in March by a small majority. In September 
those connected with the revolt except Castioni were pardoned. 

Switzerland has for the last decade and a half been the scene 
of congresses for the discussion of matters concerning interna- 
tional posts and telegraph, temperance, labor, Red Cross asso- 
ciations, international law, international copyright, and many 
more of the advanced questions of the day. One of the most 
interesting of these congresses, both as to subject and as to the 
possible results which accrue from it, was the congress, or series 
of congresses, of Social Democrats, running through 1893 and 
1894. This international congress could not bind any one, but 
it could and did meet and pass resolutions demanding univer- 
sal peace, the establishment of an eight-hour day law in all 
countries, the extension and support of national and inter- 



SWITZERLAND. 369 

national labor unions, and the general recognition of the 
rights of labor. This last was drawn up in the form of a 
petition or regards. Switzerland itself signed by over 52,000 
names. It is designed to give employment to all Swiss citi- 
zens and to set up bureaus of information for the facilitating 
and examining of all claims made under the act. There was 
also a large anarchist congress held in Switzerland in 1893 and 
1894, which set up no program of reconstruction, but de- 
manded that the minority who rule the countries of the earth 
by their possession of wealth should be annihilated before 
anything could be done to better the condition of life of the 
great mass of suffering humanity. Owing to its neutrality it 
has had difficulties with Russia and Germany, the one object- 
ing to the right of asylum it gives to nihilists, the other to 
that given the Social Democrats. But Switzerland maintains 
its integrity and its neutrality. 



TURKEY. 



Sultan, - - ABDUii-HAMiD II. 

RULERS SINCE 1800. 

Selim III 1788-1807 

Mustafa IV 1807-1808 

Mahmoud II 1808-1839 

Abdul-Medjid... 1839-1861 

Abdul-Aziz 1881-1876 

Murad V (May 20 to August 31) 1876 

Abdui-Hamid II 1876- 

MINISTRY. 

Grand Vizier General Djevad Pasha 

Sheik-ul-Islam Djomaleddin Effendi 

Minister of the Interior Rifaat Pasha 

Minister of War General Riza Pasha 

Minister of Foreign Affairs Said Pasha 

Minister of Finance Nazif Effendi 

Minister of Navy ...Hassan Pasha 

Minister of Public Instruction Suhdi Pasha 

Minister of Public Works Tewflk Pasha 

Minister of Justice Hussein Riza Pasha 

Minister without portfolio Djevdet Pasha 

Master of Artillery Zekki Pasha 

Head of the Evkafs (Bishops) Galib Pasha 

TABLE OF STATISTICS. 



Vilayet. 



In Europe: 

Eight 

In Asia : 

Twelve in Asia Minor 

Five in Armenia and Kurdistan. 

Three in Mesopotamia 

Six in Syria 

Two in Arabia 

In Africa: 

Two 

Total 

Nominally Tributary States 

Bulgaria 

Bosnia, Herzegovina, Novibazar... 

Samos 

Egypt 

Total 

Grand total, Ottoman Empire.... 



Area. 



65,909 

204,618 
89,364 
100,205 
115,144 
173,700 

398,738 



1,147,578 



37,860 

23,570 

232 

400,000 



461,662 



1,609,240 



Population. 



4,786,545 

9,123,432 
2,457,400 
1,350,280 
2,676,943 
6,000,000 

1,300,000 



27,694,600 



3,154,375 

1,504,091 

48,500 

6,817,265 



11,524,231 



39,218,831 



370 



TURKEY. 



The Ottoman Empire extends from the boundaries of Aus- 
tria on the north westward to the Persian Gulf in Asia. It is 
bounded by Austria-Hungary, Servia, Roumania, the Black 
Sea, and Russian territory in Asia on the north, by Persia and 
the Persian Gulf on 
the east, by Arabia, 
Africa, the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, and 
Greece on the south, 
and the Adriatic 
Sea, the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, and the 
southern provinces 
of Austria on the 
west. The prov- 
inces of the Turk- 
ish Empire extend 
over the entire sur- 
face of Asia Minor, 
and follow the coast 
of the Mediterran- 
ean, including Pal- 
estine, to the Suez 
Canal, thence run- 
ning westward to 
include Egypt. The government is an absolute monarchy. 
Constantinople is the capital with a population of 873,565. 

From the beginning of the century the power of the Otto- 
man Empire, acquired by conquest in the preceding centuries, 
began to decline. The victories of Napoleon which extended 
into Egypt led to discussions between the French and Rus- 
sian governments over the advisability of partitioning Turkey 
and dissolving the pagan empire altogether. Russia, however, 

371 




History 
since 1800. 



372 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

demanded the possession of Constantinople for herself, and 
negotiations stopped there, the two governments not being 
able to agree on the first point. The situation of the city of 
Constantinople, standing as it does on the straits connecting 
the Black Sea and the Mediterranean and on the junction of 
Europe and Asia, makes it one of the most important 
spots on the eastern hemisphere. Each one of the great 
powers of Europe longs to possess this strategic point — most of 
all Russia — but at the same time each fears that some other 
government may secure it, and these conflicting sentiments 
have led to nearly a century of diplomatic struggles and a long 
series of destructive wars. Russia has taken any and every 
pretext to make war on the Porte in the hope of finally gain- 
ing control of the Bosphorus ; and she has gathered to herself 
whatever territory of the empire she was able to secure. Several 
times Constantinople must have fallen into her hands but for 
the intervention of the rest of Europe. This constant interven- 
tion to save a pagan, antiquated government, that is slowly 
disintegrating, has been characterized as the endeavors of the 
doctors to save a sick man, and the political history of Turkey, 
necessarily from the student's point of view largely the history 
of Turkey's foreign relations, is the account of the successive 
diseases and narrow escapes of this " sick man." 

At the beginning of the century, when Napoleon and Alex- 
ander were endeavoring to come to some agreement regarding 
the disposition of the empire, Selim III., the reigning sultan, 
was deposed. He was succeeded by Mustafa IV., who in turn 
was deposed a year later (1808). The cause of these changes 
was a revolt of the Yamaks, a portion of the Turkish army, 
under one Baraictar, who brought about the deposition of both 
the monarchs and the crowning of a third, Mahmoud II., in 
1808. Meantime war had been going on with Russia, during 
which the latter had seized Wallachia and Moldavia. Peace 
was finally arranged and Russia gave up the two provinces, re- 
taining only Bessarabia and one of the mouths of the Danube. 

This was only one of the many losses of territory the Otto- 
man Empire sustained during the first half of the century. 
In 1812 the province of Servia revolted a second time and 
Turkey was forced to recognize her independence.* In Egypt, 

* See Servia. 



TURKEY. 373 

too, the rise of Mehemet Ali, the pasha, began to threaten that 
province of the empire. The sacred places of the Mussulmans 
were threatened by the wild tribes of Wahabites, and Mehemet 
Ali, having subdued these peoples and thus won the veneration 
of all Mussulmans, soon became the virtual ruler of Egypt. 
From that time on his power increased, until in 1840 the Porte 
was obliged to acknowledge him as the hereditary ruler of 
Egypt.* In Greece the spirit of freedom had been fostered for 
a long time by secret societies, and here, also, in 1820-21 a revo- 
lution broke out against Turkish rule. In Constantinople, on 
April 22, the patriarchs of the Greek Church were all hung or 
massacred. This started the fire of Grecian independence, 
which in 1829-30, after ten years of the fiercest warfare, com- 
pelled the Turkish government to acknowledge the independ- 
ence of the kingdom of Greece. f 

Thus on all sides the Turkish government saw its power 
waning. In these struggles it has been the ulterior purpose of 
the tsar of Russia to weaken the power of the Porte, and Rus- 
sia, one of the most despotic of civilized governments, has 
therefore stood out as the champion of Grecian independence, 
as well as that of Servian and even of Egyptian. 

It was this apparent solicitude on the part of the Russians 
for the Christians under the control of the sultan that led to 
another war with Turkey. For after the battle of Navarino in 
October, 1827, where the allies defeated the Turks, Russia 
complained that the Porte had not kept to her treaty stipula- 
tions in regard to the treatment of foreigners within her terri- 
tory. The government at St. Petersburg, not being able to get 
any satisfactory answer to its complaints, thereupon declared 
war in April, 1828, and pushed into the northern provinces of 
Turkey .$ 

It was a bad time for the Turkish government to go to war. 
The sultan had the year before instituted certain reforms in 
his army with a view to reorganizing it on the European 
models. The change had caused a serious revolt of the Jani- 
zaries, the principal portion of the regular Turkish army, and in 
order to put the reforms through this old and rebellious part 



*See Egypt. 
tSee Greece, 
t See Russia. 



374 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

of the organization had to be completely annihilated in the sum- 
mer of 1826. The rebuilding of the army by regular conscrip- 
tion, promotion in order, etc., was then introduced. Turkey, 
therefore, had neither her old army nor a new one, and the ad- 
vance of the Russians could not be checked. By 1829 Adrian- 
ople was in the Russians' hands, and they had a clear road be- 
fore them to the Bosphorus. Here again the powers interfered 
to keep the "sick man" alive, and the peace of Adrianople 
was signed in September. The Turks, humiliated by such 
a peace, were in a still weaker condition than ever, and 
the advance of the ambitious Mehemet Ali in Egypt could be 
the less easily checked. He discovered this at once and de- 
manded the pashalik of Damascus. When this was refused 
he sent his son Ibrahim Pasha through Gaza and Jerusalem in 
a victorious march toward the capital of the Turkish govern- 
ment. Russia offered to assist Turkey, but England and France, 
fearing any treaty arrangements between the two countries, in- 
terfered and compelled Mahmoud to grant Mehemet All's de- 
mand. At the same time Russia and the Porte formed an 
eight years' secret treaty in 1833 of which the most important 
clause was to the effect that Turkey should keep the Bosphorus 
closed to foreign war vessels. By 1838 Mahmoud II., jealous 
of the growth of Mehemet All's power, sent a force against 
him, but the Turks were again defeated. Again the powers 
interfered in 1839, and in July, 1840, at London, an agreement 
was signed making Mehemet Ali and his heirs rulers in Egypt. 
Mehemet, however, refused to submit to certain conditions, and 
the powers with the exception of France declared war against 
Egypt, bombarded Alexandria, and defeated the Egyptians 
completely. Peace being again restored, Mehemet Ali agreed 
to the London treaty of 1840. 

Meantime, in 1839, Mahmoud II. had died and Abdul-Medjid 
ruled in his stead. The internal history of the Ottoman Em- 
pire during the latter's reign is chiefly memorable for the fa- 
mous Hatti-Sherif of Oulhane, which, though incompletely 
followed out, was the program for putting Turkey on an equal 
footing with Europe. By its clauses private property was de- 
clared sacred, taxation was to be arranged on European sys- 
tems, military forces were to be built up on European methods, 
and a system of judicial courts introduced. 



TURKEY. 375 

The year 1848 and its revolutions did little to disturb Turkish 
government, but in 1859 the discussion regarding the protector- 
ate of France, Russia, or Turkey over the holy places in Pales- 
tine proved a sufficient cause for Russia to declare war again in 
May, 1853. Her advance toward Constantinople was checked 
by an alliance with the European powers, and the result was 
the Crimean War.* 

In the treaty of Paris at the close of the war, in 1856, Turkey 
first entered European diplomacy. The history of the Turks 
from 1858 to 1870 is a story of misgovernment, cruelty, and a 
system that became more and more atrocious until the Euro- 
pean provinces, driven to desperation, arose in revolt. The gov- 
ernment had dropped the reforms of the Hatti-Sherif of Gul- 
hane on the death of Abdul-Medjid in 1861, and Abdul- Aziz, 
his successor, was as absolute a monarch as Turkey had ever 
seen. 

In 1874 the revolt began in Montenegro,t and gradually it 
spread over the other semi-dependent provinces. Horrible 
atrocities were committed on both sides. The whole of Europe 
was aroused against such a war, and finally Count Andrassy, 
the Austrian premier, drew up a circular note demanding of 
the Porte certain concessions for the pacification of the prov- 
inces. This was sent out in 1876, but proved to be of no avail, 
and in 1877 Russia declared war on Turkey and again advanced 
on Constantinople. After the fall of Plevna, on December 10, 
1877, the Russian forces were within a short distance of the 
capital when the Turkish government signified its willingness 
to agree to the "Andrassy Note," and a peace was signed at 
San Stefano on the third of March, 1878. Afterwards, at the 
Congress of Berlin, where all the European powers were repre- 
sented, Turkey was deprived of Montenegro, Herzegovina, 
Bosnia, Bessarabia, and part of Bulgaria. The Turkish gov- 
ernment was required to pay an enormous indemnity to Russia 
which left its finances in an almost hopeless condition, yet the 
powers so manipulated afl'airs at the Congress that the pagan 
state was still kept alive, and in spite of its shattered condition 
the Porte again interfered in Egyptian affairs to reassert its 
claims, and brought on the Egyptian war that involved all 

* See Russia and Austria. 

fSee Montenegro, Servia, and Austria. 



376 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

Europe and resulted in the occupation of Egypt by England 
and France.* 

The constitution of the Turkish Empire, such as it is, is 
Govern- based on the precepts of the Koran and a code of laws drawn 
up by the successor of Mahomet, composed of the latter' s say- 
ings and decisions. To these two codes both sultan and people 
are subjected. Otherwise the sultan is an absolute ruler. 

There have been several constitutions in the European sense, 
especially one drawn up in 1876 which provided for legislative 
assemblies, election by the people, a council of state, ministers, 
high courts of justice, etc., but it is impossible to bring the 
Turkish mind to comprehend and follow them, and the spirit 
of the people as well as the ruler is so much against these 
modern changes that the constitutions have never succeeded 
in having even a fair trial. 

The Hatti-Sherif of Gulhane of 1839 was one attempt. To 
this succeeded, in 1856, after the admission of Turkey into 
European diplomatic circles, a regeneration of the Hatti-Sherif, 
which provided that private property was sacred, that torture 
was abolished, taxation remedied and equalized, that trial for 
all those charged with crime should be instituted. But, as in 
1839, it was all on paper. In 1876 came a constitution of 119 ar- 
ticles, but it was never put into effect. Finally, in 1878, at the 
Berlin Congress the representatives of the Turkish government 
agreed to institute laws for the better treatment of the sultan's 
subjects, but the government is to-day practically what it was 
fifty years ago, an absolute monarchy with a few traditional 
restrictions to the sultan's power. 

The sultan is the executive and legislative power. The suc- 
cession is by lineal male descendants of the royal family, the 
choice usually falling among the oldest of brothers, sons, or 
cousins of the sultan. He holds the power of appointment to 
all prominent positions in the government and has the right 
to remove any official. He issues hatti-sherifs and hatti-hum- 
ayos, or signed orders, which correspond to Russian ukases, 
and firmans which correspond to the "noted ukases" of the 
tsar. These laws are subject only to the criticism of the 
Koran. 

There are two high officials who are the sultan's direct repre- 

* See Egypt. 



Sultan. 



TURKEY. 377 

sentatives, appointed by him to carry out the executive and Adminis- 
legislative parts of the government, the sadr-azam, or grand tration. 
vizier, corresponding to a European premier, and the Sheik-ul- 
Islam, who is the head of tlie church and chief of the Ulema, 
the body of churchmei^lawyers, and jurists who constitute a 
-iiigh court of justice. VThe Ulema is connected with the Mufti, 
or body of men who act as interpreters of the Koran, and sum- 
mon the Ulema to assist them in what in a constitutional gov- 
ernment would be deciding on the constitutionality of new 
laws. All the members of these organizations are appointed 
by the sultan. Below these officials are efFendis, beys, and 
pashas, all civil officers in the government. The sultan also 
appoints a cabinet of eleven ministers who are the heads of 
as many departments and see to the execution of the imperial 
hatti-sherifs in their particular departments. 

Foreigners in the Ottoman Empire are tried under a court 
composed of their own countrymen, under the presidency of J^^^i^^'^y- 
the consul of their country. Where a Turk is in court 
with a foreigner, the trial comes before the Turkish court, with 
a representative from the consulate of the foreigner's native 
country to defend him against any injustice. If the case is. 
between foreigners, the one bringing the claim must go to the 
other's consulate court. The final and highest court of the 
empire is the Ulema, which for that purpose is made up of the 
greatest jurists in the nation. 

Education is very limited, but of late years there has been 
some little improvement. The Koran encourages education. 
There are colleges connected with some of the mosques. 

The empire is divided into seven military districts, and Army and 
when the law of 1887 is put into force the army will be about Navy. 
800,000 strong. Every able-bodied Mohammedan twenty years 
of age is liable to service. The military force is divided 
into the nizam, or regular army, the redif, or reserves, and the 
mustafiz, or force corresponding to the German Landsturm. 
The able-bodied men to a certain number constitute the nizam 
and serve six years there. They then serve eight years in the 
redif, and afterwards in the mustafiz. Those able-bodied 
men not required in the regular army on a peace footing 
serve, in the first year, six or nine months, and afterwards 
thirty days in each year. 



378 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



Local gov- 
ernment. 



Bulgaria. 



The navy consists at present of the following ships : 

Armor-clads 15 

Gunboats 30 

Torpedo boats 32 

Frigates 32 

Corvettes 2 

Other vessels 46 

Total 157 

The Mohammedan religion is the Turkish religion. Within 
the empire there are about 16,000,000 Mohammedans and 6,000,- 
000 Christians. There are besides the Mohammedan seven other 
religious sects allowed to worship in the empire : Catholics, 
Greeks, Armenians, Syrians, Maronites, Protestants, and 
Jews. The Mohammedans are subordinated in their church to 
the Sheik-ul-Islam, who is the head of the church as well 
as one of the two most important officers of the political state. 

Turkey is divided for local government into thirty-one 
vilayets with sub-divisions into districts, sub-districts, and 
finally into something corresponding to communes. The 
sultan appoints thirty-one valis^ each to rule in a province in 
his name. Each vali has his appointed council to assist him. 
The sultan is irresponsible in his appointments, and the minor 
offices of the vilayets being under the patronage of the valis 
are indirectly under the thumb of the sultan. 

Bulgaria lies north of Turkey proper along the Black Sea. 
Its capital is Sofia of about 30,428 inhabitants. It has an area 
of about 37,860 square miles, and is divided into twenty-two 
districts. The total population is 3,154,375. 

At the Congress of Berlin the Turkish province of Bulgaria 
was made a semi-independent state. It was granted a Chris- 
tian government and a national militia. The state is practi- 
cally independent, though it still remains under the suzerainty 
of the sultan. The prince of Bulgaria is elected by the free 
will of the Bulgarians, but the consent of the sultan and of the 
European powers is required before he can assume office. No 
member of a royal family in Europe is eligible for election to 
the head of the Bulgarian state. Religions of all kinds are 
alike before the law. The promulgation of a constitution was 
accomplished in 1879, but it was suspended in 1881 by the 
Grand Assembly of the state. Finally Prince Alexander I. 
was given extensive authority and granted the special power 



TURKEY. 379 

of calling for the adoption of a constitution within the next 
seven years. In 1882 a fairly universal suffrage was introduced 
and other parts of the constitution of 1879 were partially en- 
forced, but the disturbances that have arisen with such fre- 
quency of late years have checked any great advance the state 
might otherwise have made toward representative govern- 
ment. A revolt in 1885 added Eastern Roumelia to Bulgaria, 
and in 1886 Prince Alexander was forced to resign. Ferdinand, 
prince of Saxony, was thereupon chosen prince of Bulgaria 
by the Grand Assembly, but his election has not yet been 
sanctioned by the sultan or the European powers. There was 
an attempt in 1886 to settle the disputed questions of sov- 
ereignty by a commission, but the overthrow of the prince put 
an end to the examination. The success, such as it has been, 
which Bulgaria has had is due entirely to the sagacity and 
genius of one man, the prime minister, M. Stambouloff. 

Crete, or Candia, is an island in the ^gean Sea. It has been 
the scene of many battles, struggles of the inhabitants to gain 
their freedom, which have succeeded but poorly owing to the 
inability of Greece to send sufficient assistance. After the 
uprising in 1889 the sultan secured a stronger hold over the 
island than ever before, and he immediately recalled the grants 
made to the inhabitants in 1868, 1878, and in 1887, by the 
European powers. And to-day the island is virtually only 
another vilayet of the Ottoman Empire. 

Samos is an island off the west coast of Asia Minor. It is 
232 square miles in area and has a population of 48,500. The 
government is that of a tributary principality, according to an 
agreement made between the sultan and Great Britain, France, 
and Russia. A constitution, dating as does the agreement 
from 1832, is the result of the Greek war for independence. 
Prince Alexander Karatheodori is the ruling prince and he 
has a council of four Greeks to assist him. He is appointed 
by the sultan.* 



Crete. 



Samos. 



* For the discussion of Egypt see under Egypt. 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



President, - - Grover CLEVEiiAND. 

RULERS SINCE 1800. 

Thomas JeflFerson, president, two terms, Republican 1800-1808 

James Madison, president, two terms. Republican 1808-1816 

James Monroe, president, two terms, Republican , 1816-1824 

John Quincy Adams, president, two terms, Republican 1824-1828 

Andrew Jackson, president, two terms. Democratic 1828-1836 

Martin Van Buren, president, one term. Democratic 1836-1840 

William Henry Harrison, president ) , _,^^. ^^a^ -.n.. 

John Tyler, president | «^^ t^^^' ^^^^ • 1840-1844 

James K. Polk, president, one term, Democratic 1844-1848 

Zachary Taylor, president ) , „„. 10^0100 

■m«-,i / TT11 . ■■ . y one term, Whisr 1848-1852 

Millard Fillmore, president! "=" '^'^^3 & xo^io- ou 

Franklin Pierce, president, one term. Democratic 1852-1856 

James Buchanan, president, one term, Democratic 1856-1860 

Abraham Lincoln, president 1 , , -o v.,. iooa tooo 

Andrew Johnson, president j *^« t^^^^' Republican 1860-1868 

Ulysses S.- Grant, president, two terms, Republican 1868-1876 

Rutherford B. Hayes, president, one term, Republican , 1876-1880 

James A Garfield, President )^^ ^^^ ^^^^^.^^^ ^^^^^^^ 

Chester A. Arthur, president j 

Grover Cleveland, president, one term. Democratic 1884-1888 

Benjamin Harrison, president, one term. Republican 1888-1892 

Grover Cleveland, president, one term. Democratic 1892-1896 

CABINET. 

Secretary of State W. Q. Gresham 

Secretary of the Treasury ....J. G. Carlisle 

Secretary of War D. S. Lamont 

Secretary of Navy H. A. Herbert 

Secretary of Interior Hoke Smith 

Secretary of Agriculture J. H. Morton 

Postmaster-General William L. "Wilson 

Attorney-General Richard Olney 



TABLE OF STATISTICS. 



State. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

Carolina, North 

Carolina, South 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Dakota, North 

Dakota, South 

Delaware..., 

District of Columbia. 

Florida 

Greorgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New Hampshire 

New Jersey 

New York 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode Island 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Vermont 

Virginia 

West Virginia 1 

Washington ! 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 

Utah 

Territories : 

Alaska 

Arizona 

Indian Territory.... 

New Mexico 

Oklahoma 

Total 



When 
ad- 
mitted. 



1819 
1836 
1850 
1789 
1788 
1876 
1788 
1889 
1889 
1787 



1845 
1788 
1890 
1818 
1816 
1846 
1861 
1792 
1812 
1820 
1788 
1788 
1837 
1858 
1817 
1821 
1889 
1867 
1864 
1788 
1787 
1788 
1802 
1859 
1787 
1790 
1796 
1845 
1791 
1788 
1863 
1889 
1848 
1890 
1894 



Area. 



51,540 
53,045 
155,980 
48,580 
30,170 
103,645 

4,845 
70,195 
76,850 

1,960 

60 

54,240 

58,980 

84,290 

56,000 

35,910 

55,475 

81,700 

40,000 

45,420 

29,895 

9,860 

8,040 

57,430 

79,205 

46,340 

68,735 

145,310 

76,840 

109,740 

9,005 

7,455 

47,620 

40,760 

94,560 

44,985 

1,085 

41,750 

262,290 

9,135 

40,125 

24,645 

66,880 

54,450 

97,575 

82,190 



531,410 
112,920 

31,000 
122,460 

38,830 



Popula- 
tion. 



Capital. 



3,493,410 



1,513,017 Montgomery , 
1,128,179 Little Rock..., 
1,208,103 Sacramento... 

1,617,947 Raleigh 

1,151,149 Columbia 

412, 198! Denver 

746,258 Hartford 

. 182,719 Bismarck 

328,808 Pierre 

168,493 Dover 

230,392. Washington.. 

391,422 Tallahassee.... 

1,837,3.53 Atlanta 

84,385! Boise City 

3,826,351 iSpringfield. . . . 

2,192,404!lndianapolis , 

1,911,896" " " 

1,427,096 

1,858,635 

1,118,587 

661,086 
1,042,390 
2,238,943 
2,093,889 
1,301,826 
1,289,600 
2,679,184 

132,159 

1,058,910 

45,761 

376,530 
1,144,933 
5,997,853 
3,762,316 

313,767 
5,258,014 

345,506 
1,767,518 
2,235,523 

332,422 
1,655,980 

762,794 

349,390 

1,686,880 

60,705 

207,905 



No. 

of 

Rep. 



No. 

of 

Sen. 



3 commis- 
sioners. 



31,795 

59,620 

177,782 

153,593 

61,834 



62,638,800 



Des Moines 

Topeka 

Frankfort 

Baton Rouge 

Augusta 

Annapolis 

Boston 

Lansing 

St. Paul 

Jackson 

Jefferson City 

Helena 

Lincoln 

Carson City 

Concord 

Trenton 

Albany 

Columbus 

Salem 

Harrisburg 

Providence and Newport 

Nashville 

Austin 

Montpelier 

Richmond 

Charleston 

Olympia 

Madison 

Cheyenne 

Salt Lake City 



Sitka 

Phoenix 

Tahlequah. 
Santa F6.... 
Guthrie 



2 

'\ 

13 

11 
8 

11 
6 
4 
6 

13 

12 
7 
7 

15 
1 
6 
1 
2 
8 

34 

21 
2 

30 
2 

10 

13 
2 

10 
4 
2 

10 
1 
2 



358 



90 



381 



THE UNITED STATES. 

The republic of the United States of America occupies the 
central portion of the continent of North America. It is 
bounded on the north by the forty-ninth parallel of latitude 
from the Pacific Ocean to the point where it intersects Lake 
Superior. Thence the northern boundary extends along the 
chain of the Great Lakes to Ottawa and from there to the 
Atlantic Ocean along the southern boundary of the province of 
New Brunswick. The eastern boundary of the United States 
is the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico ; the southern 
boundary, the Gulf of Mexico, the republic of Mexico, and the 
Gulf of California ; and the Pacific Ocean forms the western 
boundary. The government is that of a federal republic com- 
posed of forty-five states and four territories, together with 
the District of Columbia, within which the city of Washington 
is situated, and Alaska, the northwesternmost extremity of the 
continent, which was purchased from Russia in 1867 for $7,- 
000,000. Washington is the capital with a population of 230,- 
392, and the president, Grover Cleveland, is the head of the 
government. 

It is impossible in the limits of this sketch to more than 
since 1815. suggest the development of the present government from the 
beginning of the century. The peace of Ghent, signed on the 
24th of December, 1814, closed the war commonly known as 
the War of 1812, or the Second War of Independence. It had 
been caused partly by European international difficulties be- 
tween Napoleon and England, partly by the still strong senti- 
ment in England against American independence, and per- 
haps directly by abuses heaped upon American seamen by the 
English navy. Its final settlement may be taken as the be- 
ginning of a new period in American history. Up to 1801 the 
Federalist party had held general control of the government and 
had done much to strengthen the new and somewhat precarious 
republic. The election of Thomas Jefferson in 1800 began are- 

382 



THE UNITED STATES. 383 

vulsion of feeling from the theory of centralized government 
to the theory of the right of the different states to govern them- 
selves. The Federalists, however, maintained a strong minority 
until the close of the war when they disappeared altogether. 
The war had been opposed by them. They leaned toward 
England, as the Democratic-Republicans, the name of Jeffer- 
son's party, sympathized more fully with France, and the in- 
direct defeat of the English in the war gave the Republicans 
the upper hand. 

Jefferson believed that the existence of the federal govern- 
ment was for the naere purpose of keeping the union of states in- 
tact for internal welfare and external safety, that the states were 
the real sovereign powers in all that concerned them, and that 
the United States government was concerned with itself pri- 
marily and with other states only in so far as was absolutely 
necessary. His party, therefore, in 1815 comprised practically 
the whole nation. 

As we have said, the Federalist party was dead at the close Adminis- 
of the war, and at the end of Madison's administration (1812-16) trations 
the United states had but one political party. With Monroe's 
election in 1816 the Democratic-Republican party was supreme, 
so much so in fact that the period of his two terms of office has 
become known as the "era of good feeling." The policy of 
"America for Americans " was pushed forward during Mon- 
roe's two administrations. Money was appropriated by the 
federal government for internal improvements, the most im- 
portant of which was the Erie Canal, completed in 1855. Out 
of this policy the seeds of two new parties were planted. Some 
of those who might have been Federalists had they dared, who 
believed in the United States government as on the whole 
more important than the state governments, interpreted the 
constitution freely and gave the central government authority 
to raise and use money for internal improvements. Others of 
the party, who favored the supremacy of the states, felt this to 
be the work properly of the states. The latter put a strict, 
literal construction on the words of the constitution. Hence 
out of these two divisions of the Democratic-Republican party 
came the "Strict Constructionists" and the "Loose Con- 
structionists." Henry Clay headed the latter party in its first 
great differences with the Strict Constructionists in 1820 over 



384 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

the question of whether slavery should be allowed in Missouri, 
which was about to become a state. The matter was finally set- 
tled by the Missouri Compromise, passed in 1820-21. The elec- 
tions of 1821 turned on these Loose and Strict Constructionist 
theories, though not yet with any great show of strength for 
the former. Monroe, however, though a Strict Constructionist, 
seemed to favor the Loose Constructionists somewhat, and he 
was reelected with scarcely any opposition. 

In 1822 the report that the European Holy Alliance was 
about to aid Spain in suppressing the revolt of her South 
American colonies led to the final crystallization of the 
"America for Americans" theory. To be sure, the idea was 
not new, for Washington in his farewell address had recom- 
mended that the United States should avoid so far as possible 
any complications with foreign powers and prevent interven- 
tion in home affairs by outsiders. Mr. Monroe in his message 
to Congress in 1823 spoke a few words which constitute what 
has since been called the Monroe Doctrine, though the mes- 
sage had no binding effect. He said that any interference in 
the affairs of the western hemisphere by European powers 
would not be tolerated by the United States, and that, on the 
other hand, the United States would not interfere in any 
European difficulties. 

The next election found the two parties now fiercely opposed 
to one another. John Quincy Adams, a Loose Construction- 
ist, was finally elected after a coalition with the followers of 
Clay, who had resigned his claims in favor of Adams. The 
Strict Constructionists, who were represented by Andrew Jack- 
son, felt themselves cheated of the presidency by a combina- 
tion, and when Adams appointed Clay secretary of state, this 
strong minority in Congress began a bitter fight which ex- 
tended through the entire Adams administration, and finally 
elected Jackson in 1828. Out of these " Jackson men," as they 
were first called — Strict Constructionists as they really were 
— came the Democratic party of to-day. Out of the Loose Con- 
structionists, now allied under Clay and Adams, came the 
National Republicans, or, as they were later called, the Whigs, 
the last name coming probably from a resemblance between 
the hostility of the English Whigs to George III. and the hos- 
tility of the National Republicans to " King" Jackson. Their 



THE UNITED STATES. 385 

principles represented the old Federalist idea in a modified 
form, with an added " plank " favoring a protective tariff. 

Dividing on these lines, the elections of 1828 gave Jackson a 
large majority and he was therefore declared president. He 
served two terms. It is probable that most of the opprobriuna 
that now attaches to the name of " politician " was begun dur- 
ing the "reign of Andrew Jackson." Hitherto parties had 
been subordinated to the candidates ; now under Jackson's 
semi-military methods the machinery of party politics, already 
invented in New York, was made national. Jackson rewarded 
his helpers by appointing them to offices made vacant for this 
purpose, and hence the introduction of the "spoils system," 
which the present Civil Service Commission is endeavoring to 
crush. In 1833 this machinery won Jackson a complete vic- 
tory, and in 1839-40, therefore, the Whigs felt that their only 
chance lay in the construction of a counter-machine, and of 
counter state and national conventions. 

During the first term of President Jackson's administration 
the southern Democrats, who had followed Crawford, and on 
his disappearance from politics had transferred their votes to 
Jackson, began to discover in the latter a man who was not 
likely to go to the Strict Constructionist extrem.es which they 
advocated. It therefore became necessary to find another 
leader, who proved to be the vice-president, Calhoun. This 
division of the Democratic party opposed the right of the 
federal government to make tariff for the whole of the United 
States and declared the right of each state to nullify and de- 
clare void any act of Congress which it judged unconstitutional. 
This Doctrine of Nullification, which later merged itself into 
the Doctrine of the Right of Secession (the right of any state to 
secede from the Union if it saw fit to do so), became the stum- 
bling block over which parties in 1860 split the Union into hos- 
tile camps — the direct cause of the war. Jackson's hostility to 
the national bank and his final removal of the government de- 
posits to the different state banks, afterwards called "pet 
banks," led to a vote of censure against him in the Senate, 
which he finally put down on the ground that he could not be 
censured, only impeached. Afterwards he forced the Senate to 
expunge the vote of censure from its records. 

Nullification was near actual accomplishment in 1832, when 



386 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

South Carolina voted an ordinance declaring the tariff bill not 
in force within that state, but Jackson issued a proclamation 
declaring that he would carry out the laws and prevent any 
nullification by military force. The movement was therefore 
checked for the time. 

Van Buren succeeded Jackson in 1837 and had to bear the 
penalty of being the successor of an autocratic ruler such as 
Jackson had been. The financial panic of 1837 and all the 
misery that followed in its wake occupied most of his adminis- 
tration. In 1840 the National Republicans, now known as the 
Whigs, elected Harrison and Tyler. Harrison's death a few 
weeks after his inauguration left Tyler president, and the 
Whigs soon found a man at the head of the government who, 
having been elected to propitiate the southern branch of the 
party, had no sympathy with the party itself. It was proposed 
by the southern members, who wished to see slavery extended 
westward, to annex Texas to the United States and allow 
slavery within its limits. Tyler pushed the southern side of 
the question, but in the North a Liberty party was formed, de- 
nouncing slavery as a naoral crime. This came to nothing 
m.ore than the nomination of a candidate for the presidency, 
who was defeated. 

When James K. Polk was elected to the presidency in 1844 
he found himself committed to the Texas question. Up to the 
present each party had had members in the North and in the 
South, but owing to the constantly increasing importance of 
slavery the Whigs were growing stronger in the North and 
weaker in the South and the Democrats vice versa. Parties 
were fast becoming territorially divided and nullification and 
slavery were becoming the important questions that divided 
them. In the Polk elections they divided on the question of 
the annexation of Texas, which was only finally decided in 
1850 by a series of bills known as the Compromise of 1850. This 
Compromise was the last great political act of Henry Clay. 

An insurrection had arisen in the territory now known as 
Texas under the direction and instigation of Sam Houston, 
an American citizen, and the country revolted from Mexican 
rule in 1841. Being then independent, it applied for annexa- 
tion to the United States. When the bill came up during Van 
Buren's administration it could not be passed. In 1844, under 



THE UNITED STATES. 387 

the presidency of Polk, Texas was annexed, slavery being left 
unsettled south of parallel 36° 30^, and all territory north be- 
longing to the great district annexed was declared free from 
slavery. This act of annexation brought on the Mexican War, 
as Mexico naturally objected. In fact, the whole war was a 
contest for territory, and was one of the few instances where 
the United States, has attacked a weaker power and seized its 
territory. The war closed early in 1848, and the United States 
annexed all the territory now included in Texas, New Mexico, 
and Arizona, and seized the whole of California. 

In 1849 Zachary Taylor was elected president by the Demo- 
crats and by his death shortly after inauguration the vice-presi- 
dent, Fillmore, became president. The Compromise of 1850 
settled the following questions : that California should be ad- 
mitted as a state ; that Texas also should be admitted ; that 
Arizona and New Mexico were to be slave states when they ar- 
rived at statehood ; and most important of all, a law was 
passed obliging the authorities in all the states of the Union to 
return fugitive slaves when applied for by their owners. 
With the passage of the Compromise and Clay's retirement 
from politics the Whig party lost its significance. A Free 
Soil party appeared as its rival, both parties nominating can- 
didates in 1852. The Whigs had weakened from their original 
position and indorsed the Compromise of 1850, while the Free 
Soilers declared the Compromise an infamy and slavery a sin 
against God. Between them they lost the election and the 
Democrats elected Franklin Pierce. 

Out of the Free Soil party, founded in 1852, came in a few 
years the Republican party, which carried the war through to 
its close and held the reins of the government thereafter for a 
quarter of a century. At the time of Pierce's administration 
there existed for a short time a party which was brought into 
existence in opposition to the increased immigration of foreign- 
ers into the United States, people drawn hither partly by the 
gold discoveries in California and partly by their suflierings in 
their native countries. This Know-nothing party was opposed 
to all foreign elements and their name grew out of a party cry 
of theirs that they " knew nothing illegal or unconstitutional." 

During Pierce's and Buchanan's Democratic administrations 
(1852-60) all parties did their best to dodge the one great issue 



388 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

of the hour — slavery. It was the period of the calm before the 
storm, but the great Kansas-Nebraska question culminating in 
John Brown's raid prepared everybody for 1860. States rights, 
nullification, secession, slavery, these were the questions that 
divided the voters of the United States into two distinct terri- 
torial parties. No great leader could stand a chance in such a 
contest ; each had too many enemies. But fortunately, as is 
often the case in such crises, the Republicans hit upon an un- 
known yet highly suitable man, Abraham Lincoln, Lincoln 
had little thought of slavery being at once abolished, but he 
spoke out openly as to the contested right of one state of the 
Union to nullify the acts of Congress and secede from the 
Union. On the 20th of December, 1860, South Carolina seceded 
from the Union and repealed all the acts by which the state 
had originally joined it. Other states followed, and the Con- 
federate government was formed under Davis and Stephens as 
president and vice-president. 

With the disappearance of the southern Democrats from 
Congress Lincoln's party had a strong majority. He held to 
his policy with indefatigable zeal and maintained that the 
Union must be preserved with or without slavery. The war 
began with the attack on Fort Sumter in April, 1861, and only 
ended with the surrender of Lee at Appomattox Court-house, 
near Richmond, on the 9th of April, 1865. Lincoln, elected 
for a second term, was assassinated by Wilkes Booth in a 
Washington theater April 14, and the presidency fell to An- 
drew Johnson, the vice-president. The war had scarcely been 
a civil war or rebellion proper. " Two communities radically 
differing in social structure and therefore in political require- 
ments had been clamped together in ill-assorted, uneasy, con- 
tentious, and immoral union. At length, in the course of 
nature, they fell asunder and formed two separate nations, the 
stronger of which proceeded to attack, conquer, and re-annex 
the weaker. This was the simple fact." * The ** irrepressible 
conflict" had thus been growing for forty years and was finally 
settled in 1865. 

Then began the period of recovery, which is still acting and 
will continue to act until the entire generation that witnessed 

* Goldwin Smith's " The United States, an Outline of Political History," 
page 249. 



THE UNITED STATES. 389 

the struggle has passed away, Johnson was not as closely identi- 
fied with the Union cause as Lincoln had been. He came into 
contact, therefore, with the strong Republican Congress and a 
conflict resulted. He was denied the right of dismissing offi- 
cers of the government, and his discharge of Stanton, Lin- 
coln's secretary of war, brought the matter to a head. Johnson 
was impeached by Congress, but the necessary two thirds vote 
was not forthcoming and he was acquitted. Congress, how- 
ever, had virtually taken the government out of his hands. 

The first step in reconstruction had been taken in 1865 by 
the passage of the thirteenth amendment to the constitution, 
which forbade slavery forever. The next step gave the negro 
equal rights with whites in the country. It failed, however, 
to become a law in 1866 through Johnson's veto, but in 1868, 
July 28, it received the required three fourths vote and became 
the fourteenth amendment with additions. Finally, in Feb- 
ruary, 1869, Congress passed the fifteenth amendment, which 
is the last added to the United States constitution. This 
amendment stipulates that the right of all citizens to vote 
shall never be denied by the government or by any state gov- 
ernment on account of color, race, or previous state of servi- 
tude. 

From this time for ten years Congress was busy with the 
vital questions involved in the reconstruction of the South. 
The parties can be easily defined until the election period of 
1884. The Republicans at each successive convention in 1868, 
1872, 1876, and 1880 first reviewed the great services which the 
party had done the country during the war and urged besides 
a general disapproval of the "solid South," the forcing of 
proper elections in the South by the introduction of federal 
troops, etc. The introduction of troops was carried out in 
Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, and other states several 
times. As time went on, however, the infiuence which this 
review of the past deeds of the party exerted became weaker. 

On the other hand, the Democratic party opposed the intro- 
duction of federal troops in the southern states, objected to any 
interference on the part of the United States government in 
its election affairs, and thus showed a trace of the Strict Con- 
structionist principle still remaining. It was along and nerv- 
ous period for all parties concerned. It was the period during 



390 GOVERNMENTS OF THE W ORL.D TO-DAY. 

which the South though defeated could not and would not fall 
into the path laid out for it by the North. Grant, the presi- 
dent from 1868 to 1877, was the general who had brought the 
war to its conclusion, and, on the one hand, he was the hero of 
the Republican party while, on the other, he was an ever 
present reminder to the southern Democrats of their defeat. 

The election of R. B. Hayes to the presidency in 1876, though 
by a very doubtful majority, gave the Republicans again the 
control of affairs. Hayes was, however, much less of a war 
president than Grant, and, therefore, much less objectionable 
to the South. He recalled federal troops from South Carolina 
and Louisiana soon after his inauguration. He recommended 
civil service reform, and in other ways tried to conciliate 
rather than force the South. This policy toward southern 
Democrats, neutralizing the fevered contest of parties, was as- 
sisted by the growing importance of financial questions which 
were not governed by Mason and Dixon's line and conse- 
quently tended to split parties still more. Hayes's policy and 
his administration, therefore, while it deprived him of the 
support of his own party without bringing him the support of 
the Democrats, yet gave the country a long breathing spell, 
the first it had had in many decades, and this has proved to be 
of invaluable advantage. Yet the "Sunday-school politics" 
of Hayes's administration are still a by-word. As the time for 
the resumption of specie payments approached (1879), a party 
that had come into life to oppose this, and that was called after 
its great plank the "Greenback " or National party, grew in 
strength. It opposed the resumption of specie payment and 
recommended the issuance of greenbacks. United States notes, 
convertible into bonds on demand as the currency of the coun- 
try. The Greenbackers, however, never became dangerous 
rivals of the two great parties and they accomplished nothing 
m.ore than the nomination of a candidate. 

In the elections of 1880 the questions of finance and tariff 
began to take a more important place in party warfare, the Re- 
publicans recommending protection, the Democrats a reduc- 
tion of the tariff. The Republican party reviewed its past 
achievements again, favored loose constructionism, and elected 
James A. Garfield president. Garfield urged the necessity of 
civil service reform, but on July 2, 1881, when his administra- 



THE UNITED STATES. 391 

tiou had scarcely begun, he was assassinated by a fanatic 
named Guiteau. Chester A. Arthur, the vice-president, became 
president. Tlie whole of Arthur's term was uneventful, the 
time of Congress being largely occupied with the discussion of 
tariflT bills that did not become laws. It was during Arthur's 
term that the great difficulties between labor and capital be- 
gan to culminate in the Knights of Labor, an organization 
started in Philadelphia in 1883 with hardly more than 55,000 
members, which soon arose to the enormous membership of 
600,000 men. 

The elections in 1884 and the questions involved mark a new 
period in party politics. The Republican party had lost its 
significance, because its work was largely accomplished. The 
southern abuses in elections were all that remained to divide 
the North from the South. The names of parties, however, 
still remained. Tariff questions did not divide parties terri- 
torially as did the war issues, and for want of vital party ques- 
tions the electoral campaign became a close and bitterly j)ersonal 
contest between James G. Blaine, the Republican nominee, and 
Grover Cleveland, the Democratic. Cleveland won entirely on 
the vote of New York State, which went strongly Democratic, 
owing to the appearance of an independent political organiza- 
tion, known as the *' Mugwump " party, which was composed 
of active men belonging for the moment to neither party but 
seeking for issues of the hour and leaving behind them those 
of war. Both the great parties declared for civil service re- 
form, and both declared for a reduction of the revenue, the 
Republicans still defending protection, the Democrats con- 
demning it. For the first time in half a century there was no 
general removal of office-holders. A Civil Service Commission 
was appointed, which has done much under many disadvan- 
tages to do away with the spoils system and make tenure of 
office depend on good behavior, and appointments subject to 
an examination. There is much still for the Commission to 
do, however. Perhaps the most important act passed was the 
Interstate Commerce Law, creating a commission to regulate 
the charges of railroads running through two or more states, 
with the purpose of preventing a smaller charge being made for 
a ''longhauP' than a "short haul." This measure is a distinct 
loose constructionist act passed by the Democratic Congress. 



392 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

In the elections of 1888 a reaction occurred and Benjamin 
Harrison, the Republican nominee, defeated Cleveland on his 
second nomination, the vote being again decided by New 
York. The party lines were if possible still more indefinite 
than in 1884, though the tariff question played a more impor- 
tant part. Grover Cleveland was elected for a second term in 
1892 with Harrison again the candidate of the Republican 
party. 

A tariff law was passed in 1789, July 4, whose object was 
Tariff. '* the encouragement and protection of manufactures." Presi- 
dent Monroe, in his message to Congress in 1817, recom- 
mended a protective tariff after Congress had abolished the 
internal tax passed during the War of 1812 for the purpose of 
raising money. A tariff bill slightly protective had been 
passed in 1816, and was continued now for seven years, the 
real purpose being to raise revenue for the government. In 1820, 
however, the Strict and Loose Construction element among 
the Democratic-Republicans was beginning to divide the party 
into two camps and the question of tariff was one of the causes 
of the division. "Strict Constructionists believed that the 
constitution gave Congress power to lay duties only with the 
design to provide for the expenses of the government and the 
paying of the national debt, and that the arrangement of 
duties for the benefit of any branch of manufacturers was 
usurpation of a power not granted or implied. Loose Construc- 
tionists believed that the power to regulate commerce and pro- 
vide for the common defense implied the power to lay a pro- 
tective tariff, and that any subsequent benefit to manufactures 
would be more than offset by the creation of a domestic market 
for agricultural products.''* This expresses, probably as well 
as it can be expressed in few words, the policy of the two 
parties then existing, and of the Republican and Democratic 
parties since then, on the question of tariff. 

Tariff was, however, not confined within strict party lines, 
for in 1824 Monroe, himself a Strict Constructionist, advised a 
protective tariff, and the Congress passed a bill raising duties 
higher than they had ever been before. 

Southern members voted almost entirely against the bill, 
because the North was the manufacturing portion of the 

* Johnston's "American Politics," page 94, edition of 1892. 



THE UNITED STATES. 393 

United States and the South the producing. Four years later 
the strong protective tariff of 1828 was passed, and, while it 
fully satisfied northern manufacturers, it incensed the South, 
which had to pay tariff duties without receiving returns. The 
southern complaint, however, against the tariff act was mainly 
because it recognized the doctrine of protection, and this hos- 
tility continued to come from the South, especially from South 
Carolina, until in 1832 another bill was passed reducing the 
1820 tariff, but still favoring to a certain degree the principle 
of protection. In the following year, through the energy of 
Henry Clay, a compromise tariff was passed providing for a 
gradual reduction of duties on imports until in 1842 there was 
to be a general tariff of twenty per cent on all imported goods. 

As 1842 approached it was discovered that by the reduction 
of the tariff the government expenses had become greater 
than its receipts. Something had to be done, therefore, and a 
revenue tariff was finally passed and became a law. In the 
presidential election of 1844 " protective tariff" was one of the 
planks of the Whig platform. 

The tariff of 1846 reduced duties slightly and bore the mark 
of Strict Constructionist theory. In 1857, under Pierce's pres- 
idency, the tariff was again changed and duties were lowered 
below those in the bill passed in 1816. 

Then came the war and the necessity for large sums of 
money at once. The Morrill tariff of 1861, however, was not 
so much a matter of revenue — in fact that was a secondary 
matter — as of protection to manufacturers pure and simple. 
The southern members having withdrawn from Congress on 
the secession of the southern states, the Republicans passed 
their bill at once. Then in 1862 the war taxation laws began. 
The Internal Revenue Act of July 1st was passed to raise large 
sums on excise. On July 14 another tariff bill was passed for 
the avowed purpose of bringing tariff on imports up to and 
equal with the excise law, both being for the purpose of raising 
money during the war, both to be annulled at its close. The two 
acts passed two years later, internal excise and external tariff, 
were simply higher taxation; the one passed to raise still more 
naoney, the other to equal it, as in 1862. And this tariff of 
1864 is the basis of the law to-day, for the taxation on imports 
has never been decreased since then. In 1872 the 1862 and 1864 



394 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

internal excise laws were abolished, the war being over and 
the reason for their existence gone. The 1862 and 1864 import 
tariff laws were, however, retained. 

From 1864 to 1883 the tariff was constantly becoming more 
and more important as a party measure and, the Republicans 
being in power, the almost yearly changes that occurred far 
from lowering the war tariffs actually increased them. Such 
was the wool tariff of 1867, the copper tariff of 1869, and the 
steel rails and marble tariff of 1870. In each case the duties 
were raised, and meantime the parties in each election put 
stronger planks in their platforms concerning taxation. 

Finally, in 1883, an attempt — the Morrison Horizontal Re- 
duction Bill — was made to reduce the tariff in general without 
regard to special subjects. It failed to pass the House, but was 
finally carried on being referred to a joint committee. A re- 
duction in the tariff is certainly not an element in this bill. 

On April 16, 1890, Mr. McKinley of Ohio introduced a bill 
*'to equalize duties on imports and reduce the revenues of the 
government." It had been in committee for a long time. 
Discussion began May 7 in " limited debate." The bill was re- 
ferred to the Senate finance committee on May 23. It came 
back to the House on June 19, and was again discussed, sent 
to the Senate, and returned to House, amended, September 9. 
A conference committee of both Houses discussed the bill and 
it finally passed both Houses and became a law October 1, 1890. 
As a result of this bill the percentage of tariff on foreign goods 
was again raised though certain large sources of revenue were 
canceled. 

On December 19, 1893, Mr. Wilson, of the House of Repre- 
sentatives, reported what has been called the "Wilson Bill." 
It is a measure "to reduce taxation and to provide revenue for 
the government and for other purposes." The bill was sent to 
the Committee of the Whole in January, 1894, and was re- 
ported again January 27, 1894. On going to the Senate the 
bill was amended. Many conferences were finally ended by 
the passage of the bill in a mutilated form August 27 and 
then it became a law without the signature of the president. 
The law reduces the tariff somewhat, but only a little, and 
it admits certain raw materials free. 

As far back in the history of the colonies as their foundation 



THE UNITED STATES. 395 

slavery is to be found in all except Vermont. It disappeared, 
however, gradually in the North, and did not come up as a s^^"^®^* 
factor in politics until the United States began to spread its 
territory westward. Up to that time what little reference had 
been made to slavery in Congress had been made in the cer- 
tainty that as the free and slave states about equaled each 
other the Senate could check any radical measure on the part 
of either party. The purchase of Louisiana in Jefferson's 
term led, later on, to a discussion as to what division was to be 
made of the territory as regarded slavery. The state of Louisi- 
ana had entered the Union in 1812 as a slave state and Mis- 
souri came up next for admission in 1819. The House having 
a strong majority against slavery and the Senate a slight but 
fervid majority in favor of slavery, the result was a deadlock, 
settled in 1820 by Henry Clay's Compromise, which admitted 
Maine as a free state, gave Missouri over to slavery, and pro- 
hibited slavery ever after north of the parallel 36° 30^. This 
quieted the question for a time, though the suddenness of its 
rising is well expressed by Jefferson's remark that it came 
"like the sound of a bell in the night." 

Such a question, which, like religious questions, cannot be 
settled by compromises, was bound to come up again as soon 
as the westward movement of the population demanded more 
territory. The South saw the northern territory extending 
toward the Pacific and looked toward the land now occupied 
by Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, then the property of 
Mexico, to offer it a corresponding chance for spreading. Up 
to this time slavery had not been a subject of legislation. 
Over this question came the war with Mexico, and, after its 
close and the annexation of the territory, the settlement so 
far as slavery was concerned was made in 1850 by Henry Clay's 
great Compromise. California was admitted as a free state. 
The territories of Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona, were or- 
ganized without mention of slavery. The question was to be 
left to them. The slave trade was abolished in the District of 
Columbia, and a law was passed which permitted the pursuit 
of runaway slaves into any state of the Union by their mas- 
ters, and provided for their trial without jury before United 
States commissioners and marshals. Texas became a slave 
state. 



396 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

Meantime, since 1830, another movement had been at work 
in opposition to slavery. This abolitionist movement had 
nothing to do with politics. It did not consider that anything 
could be done by legislation. Slavery was a moral wrong and 
must be crushed out at once, by force of arms if necessary. 
Such fanatical procedure, while now it seems perfectly natural, 
at the time raised a perfect whirlwind on all sides. Even then 
every one instinctively realized that the less said about slavery 
the better, and these thundering speeches by Garrison and 
Phillips and the other abolitionists stirred up party feeling on 
all sides. Riots against the abolitionists occurred. Garrison 
was dragged through the streets of Boston with a halter 
around his neck. In Pennsylvania a man named Hall of Phila- 
delphia was burned, and another named Lovejoy in Illinois. 

The abolitionist movement, treating slavery on moral 
grounds, came into politics first when Sumner and Chase en- 
tered the Senate in 1849-50, and from 1850 to 1861 the slave 
question was uppermost in politics. To it secession and nul- 
lification, and all the theories that hang about these two words, 
owe their existence. Looking back on the question in the 
light of history, it is evident that the Union could not have 
been preserved without the abolition of slavery, and hence it 
was the real question for which the war was undertaken. 

Matters were brought to a crisis some time before 1861. For 
in Kansas in 1854-56 the question of what status it was to have 
in Nebraska and Kansas, which were applying for admission 
to the Union, created severe contests. A bill was proposed and 
passed abolishing the Compromise of 1820, and deciding that 
each state on being admitted was to vote whether it would per- 
mit slavery or not. As soon as this was passed the voting be- 
gan in Kansas. All sorts of abuses were countenanced. Men 
came over the line from Missouri by the hundreds and voted 
illegally in favor of slavery. Out of this grew John Brown's 
raid, which, coming at this time of intense excitement, grew 
to considerable proportions and was aided by the abolitionists 
of New England. Brown moved with a small force into Mary- 
land and seized the United States arsenal at Harper's Ferry, on 
July 17, 1859. He issued a call to the negroes to join him, but 
none came and he was soon captured and hung. 

Finally all parties saw that slavery must be decided by force 



ISO 



p\ 



ts 




10 









Oil 

Chfefealis o 



^BoSl^^ 



I \s7| H ^fm^'-'^^^''*- 



\ l"??^ r^o Leth bridge 



^3? r-'"^ r 'Murra? 



C )rvalfi3 ° PAlb^jCj o _rH^,fUStnnXw • 



EiKi)ire > BosSb&g aI"' 
^ Medfdx%JpLi°kv.v 



kJkiah'f° Chici^»nopNJ?E v\a\d 

Sa^tamentoy-' ^Iv^X On « Belmont 
CT, A,->wf°?,'^<''^^^ Hawthorne p. 
S.RafailrfSg^jWf^l^Qr^^^x °Candelaris 
SAN !KS> X'*^ 3r#\\. 
FRANCISCO Merited ^>%- \ V Coyote Spr 

San JosSOc Holl 
Sta. Crn/^ 
Monterey(0 



oCailgary 



! « 



. u. . ^^Tlooae Jaw 

edicinec? u^ 

Hat >=> -" 



^■S^ Ft.Assiniboine 
^eron t$i^^^d^^ J[ ;^. ^^^5 |£;*?2^"*^Minot 

.W A?-^lPH4t|N(6 T O N^Ln^r b-> #»S y-^Grea; Falls 

- <siSi- ^o E lensbure ! — %J!B'S '/^-;o > ^'^W lo « 

&k,.i:„^ i"»^ 'L>> Pasco ^ PTtf'oscWj i>gi)j^J5J^s?te)a|\„ lewisto' 

^o /"""'AoTo^iof^^MiSrrisSJi-o ©{Helen 



,OKai4^f-hjyo^.nya,i: A»fondao°^^^^^^^ 

t %>^ Colu-^^'ZJhn-Mi^-\ _ - ife#fe> ® BUtTE C'Y -i^O 1^ ? ##l 



® Kegina 



Mi 



£aA-f 



O X_A 



Glendive/r' ' 
N A ^ 






5 Jjakevicw 
hone L 



? \ P^iM-rJ ■Winne-nucca-, 

p-Eureka fR^dfing BattlfM' _ , ^ ^„^„ 

[{.ed Bluff o»0yQu}ncy y -^^ ^ Cherry 



^ ,.AriCNAL PXRK'fei ^1„ a T O 1% 
!»ll#'^i<L ' X J^^# J Sundarice i-fe \_^^ \ 

«;fc^ J^,^ ° '^Ao'K ©Boile r,^ Ida'ho^l'alls A3^&-M 
M^^ Malheur taS^ ivJlo v,V T "HaiUir P C C/^V m a 

Mfc„ .1.. i. ^i>^o<>^^^**\ c'j- „^*r''^^x ?■- t'^A^ 

"^ I n Iw.'^ Shoshone /oPocate 



if SilvenC'y ih\^ .^-^->i - ^ \/r-x -■- 

^Warner's L.', V^^ ^' ° S(|da SpV's ^^«"-C 

■Albion MontpeUero 



„ , Pembina 
^ Bottineau 

Devils Lake 

o 
Grand Fori 

|o It ; 

la Moure \„ 

lliendaleiT 
.berdeen^( « 



S O jO T ( H 

B.~Jl(edfieldo's 



® Pierre 






a'Eureka f^ffif, g j Battl^'t'ni;''^-^ii3a'ae T<joele C'yo oUhiC^l 



o Chadroti 
"Whitman ° 



S^^ yC|oo«eiy. I logano lOreetkRiv.' s%<?«'^/ Parbon 
IjMT.SfAlTA o Paradise TJley, ^° , |1 llaw%ii|(#%° , „,„., 
;% r^ T Tula^osao ,~ (j4a^sOG|DEN ? ^igC" 1 
>mj^^ ■Winne-nucca- . Elko /°.„ „ I "^i* \ , ' *-v— —- ^'^^^a*^ 



Jliobrara 
Iforfolk 

ASK 

Columbu 
_^^^orth Platte Ol 

Springvilleg&r gi yg-Qy j ,Bou^| l#\^ / AJci^o j ^ S^ -.4^ x _ — 1 B( 



o Oberlin 

Concord 
"Wallace Abllo 

Salii 




THE UNITED 



80° 




G ITZF 



2fi 



^TES OF AMERICA. 



THE UNITED STATES. 



397 



of arms and tnat the stronger must crush the weaker into sub- 
mission, though no one dared to look the matter in the face 
until he was compelled to do so. Fort Sumter was captured 
in April, 1861, and Lincoln then issued his Emancipation 
Proclamation on January 1, 1863. By the surrender of Lee in 
1865 the war was at an end and slavery had been rooted out of 
the United States forever. 

The constitution of the United States, which is one of the most 
remarkable documents ever drawn up, was adopted on or before 
the 15th day of September, 1787, by delegates from all the orig- 
inal thirteen states except Rhode Island, assembled in Federal 
Convention at Philadelphia. It is a document effected in a 
wise spirit of compromise and patriotism when the Articles of 
Confederation, which had carried the American people safely 
through the Revolution, had proved to be insuflficient for the 
government of the new United States. This constitution has 
remained unchanged with the exception of fifteen amend- 
ments. Of these, twelve were passed between 1787 and 1805. 
The thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth amendments were 
passed respectively in 1865, 1868, and 1870 and referred to the 
abolition of slavery forever in the United States, to the rights 
of all men before the law, and to the assurance that neither 
race, color, nor previous condition of servitude should debar a 
man from the rights of citizenship. 

Under the first paragraph of the constitution all men are de- 
clared free and equal, and the government is to be one by the 
people and for the people. The purpose is to "form a more 
perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, 
provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, 
and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and to our pos- 
terity." The constitution marks so strongly a new era in 
government and has been the basis of so many republican con- 
stitutions since created that it should be examined at first 
hand, offering the student far better results when consulted in 
its articles than through the medium of an abstract. 

The legislative portions of the government are placed in the 
hands of a Congress of the United States consisting of two 
houses, a Senate and a House of Representatives. This was the 
result of the methods in force in England modified to suit a 
younger state and different social and political institutions. 



Constitu- 
tion. 



Congress. 



398 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

Congress meets on the first Monday in December of each 
year, but extra sessions may be called. The session in the al- 
ternate year ends necessarily on March 4th, since a new Con- 
gress assembles on that day. The regulations regarding elec- 
tions, qualifications, quorum, rules of procedure, punishment 
of members, etc., are determined by each House for its own 
members. Members of both Houses receive a salary of |5, 000 
a year and traveling expenses. The speaker of the House and 
the president of the Senate receive $8,000 salary. All revenue 
bills must originate in the House, but the Senate may propose 
amendments. No bill can become a law unless it has received 
a majority of the votes of a quorum of both Houses and the 
signature of the president, though a two thirds vote of all the 
members of both Houses will pass a law over the president's 
veto. Congress has the power to enact all laws necessary to 
the welfare of the country and to the carrying out of the con- 
stitution, such as all matters of taxation, direct and indirect, 
the public debt, common defense, concerning the naturaliza- 
tion of foreigners, bankruptcy (though now this is in the hands 
of the states since the three bankruptcy laws passed by Con- 
gress at difierent times have all been repealed), the coining of 
all money, regulation of weights and measures, establishment 
of postal facilities, copyright, punishment of offenses against 
the laws of nations, piracy, declaration of war, establishment 
of armies and navies, and finally the passage of all laws neces- 
sary to the carrying out of all these powers. 

The proportion of the inhabitants to each representative and 
the number of representatives in the House for each decade 
since 1800 is as follows : 

JV^o. of Inhabitants to 
Decade. No. of Representatives. the Representative. 

1803 105 33,000 

1803-1813 141 33,000 

1813-1823 181 35,000 

1823-1833 212 40,000 

1833-1843 220 47,700 

1843-1853 223 70,680 

1853-1863 234 93,500 

1863-1873 241 127,941 

1873-1883 292 130,533 

1883-1893 325 151,911 

1893-1903 358 173,902 

The House of Representatives is composed of members chosen 
every two years. They are elected by the people of the several 



THE UNITED STATES. 



399 



states, one for a stipulated number of the inhabitants, this num- 
ber being determined by law. Every candidate must be at 
least twenty-five years of age, must have been seven years a 
citizen of the United States, and must when elected be a resi- 
dent of the state he is chosen to represent. The House has the 
sole right to impeach the civil oflBcers of the United States, 
but the trial is carried on before the Senate. 

The Senate of the United States consists of two representa- 
tives from each state of the Union. This arrangement was 
brought about to satisfy those who believed in the suprenaacy 
of the states, and it is a part of. the wise compromise which 
made the constitution palatable to all and efficacious. In the 
House the people of the United States speak direct. In the 
Senate the states speak direct. The two senators are chosen 
by the legislatures of the states they represent, and each sen- 
ator has one vote. The term of office is six years, but one third 
of the Senate retires every two years. Thus the House is either 
entirely changed or reelected every two years, while the Sen- 
ate is what is called a continuous body. 

Senators must be at least thirty years of age, must have been 
at least nine years citizens of the United States, and inhabi- 
tants of the state they represent when elected to the office. 
The vice-president of the United States is the president of the 
Senate, but in order to keep the state representation exactly 
even he has no vote. The duties of the Senate are to try im- 
peachment cases, and to pass upon all bills before they can be- 
come laws. 

The executive powers of the United States are vested in one 
person, the president, who, together with the vice-president, 
is elected for a term of four years. The president may be re- 
elected, but it has become an unwritten law that he shall not 
accept a third election. The constitution provides that in 
electing a president the people shall vote for electors, each state 
having as many electors as it has senators and representatives 
in Congress, and that these electors shall meet and after discus- 
sion choose a president and vice-president. But custom has 
broken the spirit of this law to a certain degree, and now. the 
electors do not discuss, but they are chosen to vote for certain 
candidates, the candidates themselves having been previously 
nominated at party conventions. The whole machinery of 



House of 
Represen- 
tatives , 



Senate. 



Executive. 



400 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

party politics came into life after the adoption of the constitu- 
tion. Electors are chosen on the Tuesday after the first Mon- 
day in November every fourth year. If there is a tie, or if no 
one receives a majority of the votes, the House elects the presi- 
dent from the three candidates having the greatest number of 
votes. If no vice-president is elected the Senate chooses him. 

The president and vice-president must be at least thirty-five 
years of age, must be native-born, and must have been resi- 
dents of the United States for fourteen years. The vice-presi- 
dent is elected merely to succeed the president in case of the re- 
moval, resignation, or inability of the latter. The president's 
salary is |50,000. He is commander-in-chief of the army and 
navy, and of the militia in time of war. He has the right of 
pardon, the right to make peace by and with the consent of 
the Senate, to appoint all members of the diplomatic corps, 
judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the 
United States not otherwise provided for in the constitution. 
Adminis- ^^^ executive business of the government is divided among 
tration. eight executive departments whose heads are appointed by the 
president and who compose the cabinet. The latter are the 
secretaries of state, treasury, war, navy, post-office, interior, 
. justice, and agriculture. This cabinet is an outgrowth of the 
constitution not provided for in its articles. The heads of 
these departments are gathered together in order to form 
a body to give advice to the president when required by him 
to do so. 

The state department is the most important and includes all 
foreign aflkirs. It has a diplomatic, a consular, and a domestic 
bureau. 

The treasury department has control of the finances, and 
under its chief there is a comptroller, an auditor, and treasurer, 
a register, and an assistant secretary. The department has 
sixteen bureaus. 

The war department has control of the affairs relating to the 
details and pe7'sonnel of the army. It consists of eight bureaus 
for the army. 

The nav^ department has charge of the personnel of the 
navy and naval affairs. It consists of eight departments, in- 
cluding the coast survey, etc. 

The post-office department has entire charge of all matters 



THE UNITED STATES. 



401 



Judiciary. 



relating to the mails in the United States, their receipt, trans- 
mission, and delivery. 

The department of the interior includes six bureaus having 
in charge respectively matters relating to patents, pensions, 
land, science, Indian affairs, and education. 

The department of justice consists of ten officials under the 
attorney-general. 

The department of agriculture was fornaerly a bureau under 
the department of the interior, but agriculture has become 
so important a matter in the United States that it has recently 
been given a separate department. The duties of the depart- 
ment are to encourage and supervise agriculture. 

The Supreme Court of the United States is unique among 
civil courts. Its greatest power and its greatest duty is to in- 
terpret the articles of the constitution and decide upon the 
constitutionality of the acts of Congress. It consists of a 
Chief Justice and eight associate justices, all appointed by the 
president by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. 

Under the Supreme Court are nine circuit courts, one justice 
of the Supreme Court being assigned to each. Cases of appeal 
may be taken from the circuit court to the Supreme Court, and 
each circuit court is presided over by a circuit judge, a district 
judge, and a justice of the Supreme Court. 

The nine circuit courts are divided into district courts, and 
each state has one or more of these district courts. 

There are also circuit courts of appeal, created in 1,891, to 
divide the work with the circuit courts, with whom they are 
identical as to circuits and judges. 

These are the United States courts having jurisdiction under 
the constitution in all matters between the United States and 
foreign countries, in difficulties arising from interpretations of 
the constitution, in controversies where the United States is a 
party, in controversies between the United States and an indi- 
vidual, between the citizen of one state and another state, be- 
tween citizens of different states, between states, and between 
states or citizens and foreign powers. All trials for crime must 
be before a jury except in cases of impeachment. 

Each state has its constitution drawn up and adopted by a 
convention at some period of its history. The legislative por- emments. 
tion of the state government is in ea,ch case vested in two 



state gov- 



402 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

houses, not always known under the same name but composed 
in the main of a house of representatives and a senate. The 
former is made up of members chosen by popular vote by dis- 
tricts into which the state is divided, the latter in the same 
way, but usually for a longer term an.d from different and 
larger districts, making the senate a smaller and generally a 
more conservative body. The electoral period is one or two 
years and the term of office varies from one to four years, the 
general rule being four years for senators and two for representa- 
tives. The rules and methods of procedure are similar to 
those in force in the United States Congress. 

The executive portion of the state government is vested in a 
governor who is elected by the people of the state. He is re- 
sponsible to his electors as the president is to his, and while 
the governor's term of office is usually two years it is in some 
cases three and occasionally four. The qualifications for office 
vary in the difierent states. Each state has the right to de- 
clare its own, but they all agree on thirty years as a minimum 
age, and they all set a term of years for required residence 
within the state, and citizenship. The governor's duties are to 
take charge of all executive matters, promulgations, etc., to 
command the state troops, and occasionally to exercise judicial 
powers. A lieutenant-governor exists in many states, filling a 
place similar to that of the vice-president. 

In nearly all the states there are administrative officers hav- 
ing duties in the state similar to those of the president's cabi- 
net. These include a secretary of state, an attorney-general, 
an auditor, a comptroller, and a treasurer. 

The judicial part of the state governments differs in each 
case. It is, however, generally divided into police courts, 
county courts, a supreme court, and probate courts. 

The army of the United States, by acts passed in 1866, 1869, 
N^3f.^ and 1870, is limited to 25,000 men exclusive of about a thou- 
sand men in the hospital and signal corps. The army now 
stands as follows, therefore : 

Officers 2,169 

Men 25,000 

►Signal corps 350 

Hospital corps 723 

Clerks and messengers 170 

Total 28,412 



THE UNITED STATES. 403 

Besides the regular army there is a system of state railitias 
composed of raen between the ages of eighteen and forty, and 
this is fast becoming an enormous body. It promises in time 
to train a fighting force of 7,000,000 men capable of serving in 
the field in time of war. The militia now numbers 114,587 
officers and men. The United States is divided into three 
divisions and again into eight departments for military pur- 
poses. 

The navy consists at present of the following ships of war in 
commission or in process of construction : 

In commission. Building. 

Battleships 5 

Cruisers 12 11 

Rams 1 

Coast defense 6 

Torpedo boats 1 

Dynamite cruiser 1 

Total 14 23 



URUGUAY.* 

President, - J. I. Bobda. 

The republic of Uruguay is situated in the eastern part of 
South America and is bounded on the north by Brazil and a 
portion of Argentine Republic, on the east by Brazil and the 
Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Atlantic Ocean and the 
mouth of the La Plata, and on the west by the Argentine Re- 
public. The government is that of a republic formed on the 
general lines of South American republics. Montevideo is the 
capital with a population of 170,000. 

The area of Uruguay is 72,110 square miles and the popu- 
lation is about 700,000. The state is divided into nineteen 
departments. 
Historical The territory occupied by the republic of Uruguay was part 
sketch. Qf ^Yie Spanish territory of the Rio de la Plata basin, until, 
after the beginning of the century, invasions of the English 
and uprisings of the people broke up the Spanish rule. In 
1814 the army of Buenos Ayres captured the city of Monte- 
video. This city with the adjacent territory, known as the 
Banda Oriental, is so situated at the entrance of the La Plata 
that it has always been coveted by both the Argentine and the 
Brazilian governments. When civil war has appeared in the 
country, therefore, both the neighboring governments have 
ever been ready to step in and seize the control of the small 
state. The danger from without has been constantly aggra- 
vated by innumerable rebellions within the state, and between 
the two Uruguay scarcely knew what it was to be at peace up 
to 1880. There was hardly an instance up to that date 
of the peaceful election of a president, or the continuance of 
an administration through its entire term. 

General Alvear, who led the Ayrean troops at the taking of 
Montevideo in 1814, placed a man named Artigas over the 



* For map see Brazil. 

404 



URUGUAY. 405 

city. Whereupon the people arose in revolt, and it was only 
by becoming their partisan that Artigas maintained his 
power. He was eventually overthrown by Brazilian troops 
in 1820. The Brazilian government considered the Banda 
Oriental as a part of its territory and this invasion was for the 
purpose of forcibly taking possession of that district. 

Two years later, when Brazil declared its independence of 
Portugal, Montevideo remained true to the mother-country, 
with the result that Buenos Ayres and Brazil proceeded to 
fight for its possession. The British government interfered in 
1830, and with Brazil declared the territory to be an independ- 
ent state, guaranteeing its neutrality in order to preserve the 
more important neutrality of the entrance to the La Plata 
River. The new government thus guaranteed became the re- 
public of Uruguay. A constitution promulgated the year be- 
fore was put into force in 1831, and General Ribera, elected for 
a four years' term, became the first president. 

His successor, Oribe, entered upon his office in 1835, and then 
the trouble that had been for some time brewing broke forth. 
The ColoradoSj or Reds, sided with the retired president ; and 
the jBlanquUlos, or Whites, stood opposed to them. These 
two parties represented two diametrically opposed classes in 
the country. The Colorados comprised the lower classes, the 
natives, peasants, and uncivilized elements of the population, 
while the Blanquillos were the landed proprietors and the 
people who represented what there was of European civili- 
zation. And as the introduction and increase of the latter has 
advanced, the breach between the two divisions of the people 
has widened. The hostility of these two parties was intense, 
and for many years Uruguay was the battle-field of the La 
Plata. That party which chanced to be out of power sought 
foreign aid from either Brazil or the Argentine Republic, and 
with the assistance of either one or both of these governments, 
who were ever ready to prey upon the important state, it was 
sure to overthrow the other party in time, only to be over- 
thrown itself, perhaps, within the year. 

In 1842, the Ayrean dictator Rosas, being overthrown, ap- 
plied to Oribe for aid, and Uruguay fell into war with its 
southern neighbor, becoming hopelessly mixed up in the civil 
wars of the small provinces now united under the Argentine 



406 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

government. Finally, in May, 1851, Brazil, Entre-Rios, and 
Uruguay formed a triple alliance for mutual defense and safety. 
Urquiza, the ruler of the province of Entre-Rios, became com- 
mander-in-chief of the allied armies, but within a year Uruguay 
and Brazil were again at loggerheads and at the same time civil 
war broke out afresh in Montevideo. 

On the death of Ribera, in 1854, Flores had been chosen presi- 
dent by the vote of the legislative chamber, but in the following 
year he was obliged to fly from the country, a division having 
occurred in his party, the Colorados, which turned the ma- 
jority of its members against him. Periera was then appointed 
to the presidency by the Blanquillos, and civil war waged 
again until 1859. Then the powerless government sought 
foreign aid to quell the revolt and signed a treaty with Brazil 
and Argentina at Rio de Janeiro by which the two latter were 
to assist Uruguay in pacifying its own people and were to 
guarantee its neutrality. Thus peace was restored in 1860, the 
new leader of the Blanquillos, Bern, becoming president. 
Flores, who had been in exile, returned in 1863 and with the 
aid of the Colorados, now reunited, was in the act of waging 
war against the government when Brazil interfered to maintain 
order. 

At this point Lopez, the dictator of Paraguay, sent a mes- 
sage to the Brazilian government that he considered any such 
interference as dangerous to the proper balance of power among 
the La Plata states, and should oppose it accordingly. The re- 
fusal of the Brazilian government to withdraw brought on the 
fierce Paraguayan war that lasted so long and did so much to 
crush the spirit of progress in that part of South America.* An 
alliance was at once formed by Brazil, Uruguay, and Argen- 
tina against Paraguay, in which the three parties agreed to 
wage war upon Lopez until his state should be either subdued 
or exterminated, which they literally carried out. They fought 
until, in 1870, the male population of Paraguay was practically 
exterminated. 

In the meantime, civil war had been breaking out in Uru- 
guay, the two parties always rallying on opposing sides. 
Presidents and pronunciamentos followed in quick succession 
until 1876, and then the government came under the hand of a 

* See Paraguay. 



URUGUAY. 



407 



strong man. Latorre was provisionally elected in 1876 and 
definitely so in the following year. He served four years and 
on retirement left the country at peace. 

The recent history of the state has been less bloody, but no 
country with such a past as Uruguay has had for the last fifty 
years can hope to have much material growth of any kind at 
present. The wars are less frequent, but the hatred of the two 
great classes of the inhabitants does not seem to decrease. 
These two parties represent two different races, in different 
states of civilization, educated to different standards of life, 
and they cannot understand each other's positions. This in- 
herent hostility of the two divisions within the state and the 
constant upheavals going on around it have done all they 
could to hold back the progress of the republic. And it is 
only as the governments about Uruguay become more settled 
in their condition, and as the element of European civilization 
gains power over the uncivilized Colorados, that the state 
itself is beginning to become more firmly established. 

The constitution was originally adopted July 18, 1830, but it 
has since undergone so many changes that it bears little re- 
semblance to the original. 

The legislature consists of two houses, a Senate and a Cham- 
ber of Representatives. The Senate is composed of nine- 
teen members chosen by an electoral college which is elected 
by universal manhood suffrage. The term of office is six years 
and one third of the Senate retires every two years. The 
members of the Chamber of Representatives are fifty -three in 
number, and are elected by direct manhood suffrage, one for 
every three thousand males. The qualification for electorship 
requires a voter to be twenty-one years of age and to be able to 
read and write. The session of Congress extends from the 15th 
of February to the 15th of July, and during the period from 
July to February a council of two senators and five representa- 
tives carries on the legislative portions of the government and 
gives the president what assistance within its jurisdiction he 
may require. 

The president is elected for a term of four years by the elec- 
toral college. He has the usual executive authority under a Executive 
republic and is assisted in the administration of the govern- 
ment by a council, or cabinet, composed of five ministers of 



Constitu- 
tion, 



Legisla- 
ture. 



408 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

state. As in most South American republics the president of 
Uruguay exercises in practice much more extensive powers 
than are accorded him by the constitution. 
Army and The permanent military force of Uruguay consists of 3,482 
Navy. officers and men. But there is a large force of police available 
for military duties and a militia of 4,000 civilians. 

There is a naval force of seven steamships, three gunboats, 
and several smaller craft. 

The state religion according to the constitution is Roman 
Catholic but other creeds are tolerated. Education has of late 
advanced materially ; there are laws for compulsory primary 
education of all children between the ages of six and fourteen. 
There are 400 public schools, as many more private schools, a 
university and normal schools, and a new system of manual 
training schools. But these are of very recent date and educa- 
tion is backward throughout the country. 



Historical 



VENEZUELA. 

President, - - Gkneral, J. Crespo. 

The republic of Venezuela is situated in the northeastern 
part of South America. It is bounded on the north by the 
Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, on the east by British 
Guiana, on the south by Brazil and the Central South American 
territory at present claimed by several bordering states, and 
on the west by the United States of Colombia. Venezuela is a 
republic, founded on that of the United States. The capital is 
Caracas with a population of 71,399. 

The area of Venezuela is 594,165 square miles and the popu- 
lation at the latest census was given at 2, 285,054. The state is sketch'. 
divided into eight states, eight territories, and two settlements 
besides the federal district. 

Up to 1806 the territory occupied by Venezuela was under 
the rule of Spain, but in the latter year General Francesco 
Miranda entered the country, and raised the standard of revolt 
unsuccessfully. In 1811 revolt against the Spanish rule again 
broke out and a revolutionary assembly met and declared the 
independence of the colony. From this time all the north of 
South America was in revolt against Spain. Simon Bolivar, 
the liberator of South America and a native of Caracas, led the 
revolutionary forces in a war for independence for nearly eleven 
years. 

Spain at the end of that time gave up her attempt to quell 
the now successful revolution, and, though she did not recog- 
nize its independence as a state, a government was formed 
which included the territory now occupied by Colombia, 
Ecuador, and Venezuela. The war ended with the famous 
battle of Carabobo, fought July 5, 1821. Trouble, however, 
soon arose within the new government, and in 1829 the three 
independent states were formed. From this time until 1846 
the government of Venezuela was conducted under a republi- 
can constitution which crystallized in 1830, and in 1847 Spain 

409 



410 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



Constitu- 
tion. 



Legisla- 
ture. 



formally recognized the independence of Venezuela. But in 
1846 the disturbances that had been going on in the country 
around Venezuela caught fire within the state and a long 
series of desultory internal wars began which has not ended 
yet, though since 1870 peace has been more assured. 

The principal cause during these years for hostilities was the 
contention of the two parties in the government. The 
Unionists favored a strongly centralized government, and, on 
the other hand, the Federalists were as strong for the states' 
rights. As the government stands to-day, the latter show 
themselves to have been in the majority, as the powers of the 
states are very great and their union under one government is 
principally for safety and security against foreign powers. 

In 1854 slavery was abolished. In 1864 an amended consti- 
tution was drawn up, but it had been scarcely three years in 
existence when the war of parties opened again and con- 
tinued until, in 1870, Dr. Guzman Blanco of the Federalists 
put himself at the head of the government, and in three 
years he was made president. A rearrangement of states was 
brought about in 1881, and eight large states were organized, 
each with very considerable independent powers. The rest of 
the territory is under the management of the central govern- 
ment and is divided into territories or settlements. Since 
then the country has been in comparative quiet until 1891, 
when war broke out again, and trouble with Great Britain 
arose. 

The constitution of Venezuela is adapted from that of the 
United States, and in its general features it is practically iden- 
tical with the latter. It was adopted in 1830 on the formal 
declaration of independence from Spanish rule, but has been 
since then several times amended. It embodies the usual pre- 
rogatives of the American republican form of government, but 
the states have such large powers that the central authority is 
less extended than usual. 

The legislative portion of the government is given into the 
hands of two houses, a Senate and House of Representatives. 
Each has the right of initiating bills of any Isind, but a ma- 
jority of both Houses is required before a bill can become a law. 
The Senate consists of three members elected from each of the 
eight states, in all twenty-four members. They are elected by 



VENEZUELA. 



411 



Executive. 



the legislatures of the several states for a term of four years. 
The House of Representatives consists of one member for 
every 35,000 inhabitants or fraction thereof exceeding 15,000. 
They are elected for four years by a universal manhood suf- 
frage. The House at present consists of fifty-two members. 

The executive is in the hands of the president of the repub- 
lic and a council. The president has no power of veto. He is 
elected by the Federal Council to serve two j'-ears, and he is not 
eligible for reelection at once. He appoints cabinet ministers 
with portfolios, and the acts promulgated by these men both 
the president and the cabinet are responsible for. 

The chief feature of the Venezuelan constitution is the Fed- 
eral Council, This is a body of seventeen men selected by the 
Congress from among its own members every two years. One 
representative and one senator are elected frona each state and 
one representative from the federal districts. These men elect 
the president and vice-president of the republic. They have 
an advisory power in all executive matters of the administra- 
tion. 

The president, if he is doubtful as to the constitutionality of 
a certain act, may refer it to the state legislatures and it must 
then come up again before the federal Congress at its next 
session.* 

There is a Supreme Court, or Court of Appeals, at Caracas. 
There are besides in each state separate criminal and civil 
courts, which try local cases and appeal to the central courts Judiciary, 
at Caracas. There are district courts of the first instance and 
municipal judges. The Supreme Court consists at present of 
eight members, " as many members as there are states." Con- 
gress chooses these officers from nominations submitted by the 
representatives of each state on the fifteenth day of its regular 
session. 

There is a small regular army of 3,385. But all able-bodied 
men between the ages of eighteen and forty-five are liable to 
service, which makes a potential force in time of war of 
250,000 men. 

The navy is composed of five steamships and there are five 
schooners of war. 



Army and 
Wavy. 



* In this connection see remarks concerning the Referendum under 
Switzerland. 



412 



GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 



Local gov- 
ernment. 



The state religion is Roman Catholic, though other creeds 
are tolerated. Education is supposed to be free and compul- 
sory. As a matter of fact the state pays about 2,500,000 
bolivares annually for the support of schools. There are also 
two universities and twenty-nine national and federal colleges 
for boys and girls. 

Each of the eight states has its two houses of legislature, the 
members of which are elected by universal suffrage. Each 
state has also a governor elected in the same way. The 
powers of the state authorities are very large. Each state 
government regulates its own finances. The territories are 
immediately under the federal government. 



I 



I 



APPENDIX. 

There have been several independent sovereign states 
omitted from the list discussed in the course of this work. 
Occasionally they may have been mentioned in connection 
with other states, but otherwise it has not appeared that they 
were prominent enough to the general reader to warrant 
giving space to them except here in an appendix, where they 
are merely mentioned as to locality, form of government, 
population, and area. These are : 

AFGHANISTAN. 

Afghanistan is an independent state, practically under the 
control of Great Britain. It lies in the western central part of 
Asia. It is bounded, roughly speaking, on the north by the 
Central Asia states under the rule of Russia, on the east by 
the Indian border tribes, on the south by British Beluchistan, 
and on the west by Persia. The capital is Kabul. The 
country in area covers a distance from east to west of about 
600 square miles and almost 500 from north to south. The 
population is estimated at 4,000,000. 

Afghanistan has since 1838 been an important frontier for 
England and Russia. In 1878 the English captured it, set up 
a new amir, and since then, while leaving the country on the 
whole independent, both Russia and England have had diffi- 
culties with the government, which would have compelled 
either to absorb it had not the other prevented this. 

CENTRAL AFRICAN STATES. 

(a) BoRNU. In the Central Soudan south of Lake Chad 
lies an independent state called Bornu, ruled over by a sultan 
or sheikh. He is an absolute monarch, and the government 
so far as is known is little more than that of the primitive 
tribe. The area is about 50,000 square miles and the popula- 
tion perhaps 5,000,000, though these figures are very uncertain. 
The inhabitants are negroes and Arabs. 

413 



414 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

(6) Wadai. This is the most important of the Central 
Soudan tribes or nations. It lies in the country south of the 
Sahara and extends to Lake Chad and the Congo Basin. The 
government is in the hands of an hereditary sultanate. 
Sultan Sheikh Aly, the ruler, knows no check on his power 
except the Koran. The capital is Abesher. The population 
of Wadai is about 2,600,000 and the estimated area is 172,000 
square miles. In the government the sultan is assisted by a 
council which interprets the Koran, and by an army of 7,000 
men who collect the tributes. 

Two independent states, Kanem and Bagirmi, acknowl- 
edge the suzerainty of Wadai. The former lies south of 
Wadai and separates it from Lake Chad. The population is 
about 100,000, largely Arabs, spread over 30,000 square miles, 
and the form of government is an absolute monarchy under a 
sultan. Bagirmi is a country lying between Lake Chad and 
Sokoto. It is an absolute monarchy under a sultan and is 
composed of about 20,000 square miles of low marsh lands. 
The population, largely made up of negroes, numbers in the 
vicinity of 1,500,000. 

DAHOMEY. 

Dahomey has recently come into some prominence owing to 
the war carried on there in 1890-1 by the French government, 
in its attempt to insure the possession and safety of the 
French stations on the coast, viz., Porto Novo and Kotonu. 
Dahomey is an independent state on the slave coast of Upper 
Guinea in Western Africa. The king is the head of this 
unlimited monarchy. The estimated area is 4,000 square 
miles and the population is set at 250,000. 

BHUTAN. 

Bhutan is an independent state lying in the Eastern Hima- 
layas, with British India as a southern boundary and Thibet 
as a northern and eastern boundary. The two ruling authori- 
ties are the Deb Rajah, who is the temporal head of the state 
and is elected by the barons, and the Dharm Rajah, who is the 
spiritual head of the state. Punakha is the capital. The area 
of Bhutan is 16,800 square miles and the population is be- 
tween 30,000 and 40,000 souls. 

Bhutan is practically under British control, since the Indian 



APPENDIX. 415 

government pays the rulers of the country a large sum 
annually on condition that they keep peace with English 
outposts. This payment has been made since 1865 and the 
money procures whatever the Indian government desires. 

HAWAII. 

Hawaii in the Hawaiian Islands is a government in Poly- 
nesia occupying a group of islands in the Northern Pacific 
Ocean. This group was formerly known and is still often 
called the Sandwich Islands. The government is that of a 
republic, formed on the lines laid out by the constitution of 
the United States, with S. B. Dole as president. This present 
government was formed in the early months of 1895. The 
total area of the islands is 6,640 square miles and the popula- 
tion is given at 80,578. The capital is Honolulu with a popu- 
lation of 20,487 and is situated on the island of Oahu. The 
other islands of the group are Hawaii, Maui, Kauai, Molokai, 
Lanai, Niihau, and Kahoolawe. 

Up to January, 1894, the government of Hawaii was monar- 
chical, except in 1887 when the foreigners for a time gained 
the upper hand. The queen, Liliuokalani, who came to the 
throne in 1891, was a wretched ruler, tending constantly 
toward despotism and barbarism. This led to a wider breach 
between the foreigners, principally Americans, and the native 
population. This difficulty has always arisen in times of 
strife, because all the natives except the most enlightened 
support the queen, while, on the other hand, the Americans 
and other foreigners desiring a staple government oppose the 
uncertain and despotic systems of the natives. 

In January, 1893, the trouble came to a head. The queen 
prorogued her parliament, annulled the constitution, and 
signed a bill for the introduction of a lottery. On the 14th 
about a hundred foreigners met and formed a Committee of 
Safety, while Minister Stevens, of the United States legation, 
asked the assistance of marines from the United States war- 
ship Boston. Troops were landed and the queen was forced 
to sign her abdication under protest while waiting to hear 
whether the United States would annex Hawaii. A pro- 
visional government was formed and on February 1, 1893, an 
American protectorate was declared, the American flag was 



416 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

hauled up over the government houses, and a delegation was 
organized to go to the United States and recommend annexa- 
tion. At the same time the deposed queen sent a counter 
deputation asking the. United States to reinstate her. The 
treaty of annexation was drawn up and submitted by Presi- 
dent Harrison to Congress, but when President Cleveland 
came into office March 4th he recalled the bill then before the 
Senate and sent James H. Blount to Honolulu to examine 
into the matter. 

It appeared from Blount's report that the United States 
had interfered with the government of an independent 
country when on the eve of a revolution and that the troops 
sent from the Boston had caused the deposition of the ruling 
power. This was contrary to international law, and the 
president accordingly took measures to reinstate the queen. 
She, however, demanded that the United States should 
execute the members of the Committee of Safety, which 
would have been as contrary to international law as the act of 
Minister Stevens, and the matter therefore lay in an unsettled 
condition until the beginning of 1895, when the foreigners 
finally on their own account arose, imprisoned the queen, set 
up their government, elected S. B. Dole their president, and 
instituted the republic. 

LUXEMBURG. 

The grand-duchy of Luxemburg is a guaranteed neutral 
duchy in the northern central part of Europe, with Belgium 
to the north and west, and Germany on the east and south. 
Its neutrality was declared in the treaty of London in 1867. 
Luxemburg is the capital. The area of the duchy is 998 
square miles and the population is 211,088. The government 
is carried on by the grand-duke assisted by a Chamber of 
Deputies consisting of forty-five members elected every six 
years by the cantons. Half the Chamber retires every three 
years. 

MONACO. 

Monaco is a small independent principality on the Mediter- 
ranean consisting of eight square miles and surrounded by 
French territory except on the southern side, which is on the 
sea. Prince Albert is the ruling power, with the assistance of 



APPENDIX. 417 

a governor-general and a Council of State. The population is 
about 12,000. 

NEPAL. 

Nepal is a military oligarchy in the Himalayas from sixty 
to seventy thousand miles in area. It is bounded on the 
north by Thibet, on the south and west by British India, and 
by Sikkim on the east. The Maharajah Adiraj is the sover- 
eign, though his prime minister actually holds the power and 
the reins of government. The population is estimated at 
2,000,000. Khatmandu is the capital. 

OMAN. 

Oman is an independent despotism lying along the coast of 
the Indian Ocean from the Gulf of Ormuz for a thousand 
miles. The present sultan, Seyyid Fey sal, is the ruling 
power, though his authority does not go much further than 
the city of Muscat, the capital and a city of 60,000 inhabitants. 
The area of the sultanate of Oman is about 82,000 square 
miles and the population is estimated at about 1,500,000. The 
country is to-day practically under British control through the 
Indian government, though in years past Oman was much 
larger and more powerful. 

SAMOA. 

Samoa consists of a government, under a king, Malietoa 
Laoupepa, of a group of fourteen islands, all but three of 
which are very small. This group lies in the South Pacific 
Ocean. The three important islands are Upolu, Savaii, and 
Tutuila, and the capital, Apia, is on the island of Upolu. The 
area of the islands is 1,701 square miles and the population 
is about 36,000. 

Samoa is valuable as a coaling station in the Pacific and it 
was because difficulties arose as to who had the right to make 
it a coaling station, that the conference was held in 1889 at 
Berlin to settle the matter. The parties entering the confer- 
ence were the United States, Great Britain, and Germany, 
The result of the conference was that Samoa was declared an 
independent principality, the natives retaining their right to 
elect their own king, to make their own laws, and legislate as 
they saw fit. Representatives of the three powers are resident 
at Apia and a carefully arranged judicial system is set up 



418 GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY. 

with a European as chief justice. This is one of the few in- 
stances where the United States has entered into diplomatic 
relations with other nations to settle matters relating to terri- 
tory other than that on the continents of North and South 
America. 

TONGA. 

Tonga is a somewhat limited monarchy consisting of groups 
of islands which lie in the South Pacific from 15° to 23° south 
of the equator in longitude 173° to 177° west. The king, 
George II., is assisted in carrying on the government by a 
Legislative Assembly which consists of two parts, one being 
composed of representatives chosen by the people for a three 
years' term and the other part of hereditary nobles. The 
total area of the islands is 374 square miles and the population 
is about 20,000. The capital in Nukualofa. 



C 173 8 



icil ". 

Assembly 

kuncil. 

ouncil 



.'26 1 



Council 4 I 

Council 18/ 

has its own 
jovernment 



:^ouncil 4 

Council 12 



'.;.'(r)4i"(2)74} 

Douncil 4 

Council 18 

ssembly 36 

individual gov 



Volunteer corps, 524. 



1802 



Native force, 75,000., 



1874 
1884 



Per. militia 689) 

Volunteer force, 10,063 j 

Volunteer force, 2,002 



1840 
}803 

1872 act for pro- 
tection. 



(Each island has its legisla- 
ture: Antigua, The Vir- 
gin, St. Kitts, Nevis, An- 
guilla, Barbuda, Montser- 
t rat, Dominica. 

( Grenada, St. Vincent, St. 
( Lucia, Grenadines. 



Penal settlement to 1850. 
fBrit. Mew Guiana, L.ouis- 
1 iade. New Hebrides, Solo- 
1 mon. Friendly, Tonga, 
[ Melanesia, Samoa. 



TABLE OF AREAS, POPULATIONS, AND STATISTICS OF THE BRITISH COLONIES. 



Sq. Mi, I Populat'n 



Malta 

Olbmltar.. 



Rock, entmnce to Mediterranean... 



ASIA, 
f Adpn and Perlm. , 
tS(»cotrii 

Ceylon 

Cyprus 

Hong-Kong 

India 

Labuan 

North Borneo 

Straits Setti>rm 

Singapore 

Penang 

Malacca 

AFRICA. 

Basntoland 

Bechnanalantl 



.. Principal islands Arabian coast 

- Indian Ocean 

. IsI'dnearHindostan. L.at.60and9O; 

. Island In Mediterranean Sea 

. Island in China Sea 

. South Central Asia 

. Island in Malayan Archipelago 

. North part of Island of Borneo... 



British East Africa. 

Brit. Zambesia and Nyassa- 

Cape Colony 

Mauritius 

Natal 

Niger Protectorate,.. 

St. Helena. 

Ascension 

Tristan Da Cunha.... 



N. E. part of Cape Colony, Africa 

Betw. Cape Colony and S. Afr. Kcp. 

Zanzibar coast 

South Central Afrira 

Soutli Africa 



, Island in the North lied Sea... 

,. Near Capo Colony 

Lower Niger 

. South Atlantic Ccean 

. Open Atlantic Ocean , 

. Open Atlantic Ocean 



. [.<!land, eastc 
. Near Nalal... 



Bermudas 

Falltland Islands .. 

British (Uiiana 

Honduras 

Newfoundland 



Barbadoes 

■r-malca |T>V'<»- 



. K. of s. Carolina, in Atlantic t 

. (See under Canada) , 

. Rast of Patagonia 

. CDa.**t of South America... 

,. Central America ^ 

. Island In St. Lawrence River.., 



. East coast of Florida 

. East of Windward Islands.. 



"ICaici 



Leeward IsIji 

Trinifla.l 

Tobagi. 

Wind ware! I 



We.ft of Haiti 

West of Caribbean Sea 

I Islands off Venezuela 

Is. E. Caribbean sea 

AUSTRALASIA. I 
Fiji iGroup north of New Zealand 

New Giilnea Partofthe island olTCineensland.. 

Australia (See xmrter Australia) 

New Zealand island east of Australia 

Tasmania I2<*from Victoria 

Pacific Islands lAround Australia and N. Zealand. 



2,700 
15,000 



(I,oOO 
100,000 



104,471 
26,251 



41,9101 






4,000 ; ■ 

3,008,230 Colombo.., 
180,174 Nicosia.... 
Victoria... 
Calcutta... 
Victoria... 
Sandakan 



221,441 



a32,!)77 
iK),!).50 



218,902 
72,700 



Singapore. 

Georgetown.. 
Malacca 



Mascrou .... 
Vryburg.... 
Mombasa... 



1,527,224 

300,847 

54R,013 

17,000,000 

4,116 

240 

100 

1,905,000 
100,000 
50,000 
IRO.OOO 
l'ij,000 

isn,ooo 

15,884 



284,8.S7 
31,471 



182,322 
641,235 



Durban 

Asaba 

St. Helena.. 



Muscat..... 
Ksthowe ., 



Stanley 

Georgetown.. 
Belize 



Governor i f Executive council 01' 

governor tcouncil oruovernm'l...20/ 



Governor ' -[ fl^^^^' 



Le.i~l. 



High Commissioner 

Governor ' | !' 

! I Council' .. 
1 Legislati\ 

Governor Icouncil 

Governor 



Governor-general .. 



Resident Commissionei 

Governor. 

President of Company, ., 
President of Company... 

f Governor 

1, High l^onunisslonGi-.. 



Bridgetown 

Kingston 

St. .Tohn, Antigu 

Port of Spain 

St. George (Grei 



Legislative Power, 



Army Contingenta. 



i Ks 



1,300 
218,241 



,. Board of Directors in London 



Governor 

President of Company.. 

Governor 

Imperial Admiralty 



Governor 

Governor 

Administrator 

Governor 

Sultan 

Resident Commissioner. 



Governor.. 
Governor.., 
Governor ... 
Governor.. 

Governor .. 
Governor.. 
Governor.. 
Governor 



; E.tecutive Coun 




/ Executive Council... 



! Legislative Council.. 
Executive Council.... 
Legislative Council.. 

Legislative Council 

/Executive Council.... 
I Legislative Council.. 



Government of Natal.., 



fPrivy Conneil 

[ House of Assembly . 



ortlon of a regiment. 






578,482 
146,067 



Port Moresby. .......lAdminlstralor.. 



Wellirigton... 
Hobart 



.High Commisslonero 



Volunteer corps, 824.., 



Native force, 75,000... 



( Cabinet -7 I t per. mllltla... 

1 Two Housffl (i) 41 (2) 74 f j volunteer force, lO.OH.l i 

lLiSl;vc%"u°&::::i8lvah,„«er force, 2,0)2. 

t House of Assembly ''^J 

Governed by Individual gov- 



BflonEedtolncllabofnretbls. 



Sppamtrrl ItWI. 




Uganda. Ruand, 
InohidOH Matiitx 



I First provision Toe govem- 



New Providence, Abaco 
llarbor, Great Bahama, 
Han Salvador, Iauik Mo- 
riguana, Elcut hera,uroiit 
Inagua, AndiiiK. 



' KhcIi island ImK lU* legisla- 
ture: Antlgun, The Vir- 
gin, St. KittB, Nevis, An. 
guilla.Barbuda, Montiter- 

. rat, Dominica, 

Grenada, St. Vincent, St. 



•enal setllemont to 18.^i0. 

iBrlt. New Guiana, l.ouipt> 
lade, New HebrldcB, SoIi>- 



i 



1T3 



82. 



• < 



e". 



"o 






^ 

j?! 



• 'I 



'7^ 

* * « 






,4< 






'o« 




> 



.-^ 



^*f^ 






° *"X'*r^^*' j^'^c^ '-yw.' 0*°"^. 



*,$> 




L^'C, 



♦ *^ "^^ 






«, I m 

















s.^"^* • 










• ,«^ '^^-. 







